Electrical Engineer's Reference Book (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Electrical Engineer's Reference Book 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Preface 10
Contributors 12
Chapter 1. Units, Mathematics and Physical Quantities 14
1.1 International unit system 16
1.2 Mathematics 17
1.3 Physical quantities 25
1.4 Physical properties 37
1.5 Electricity 37
Chapter 2. Electrotechnology 44
2.1 Nomenclature 46
2.2 Thermal effects 49
2.3 Electrochemical effects 53
2.4 Magnetic field effects 55
2.5 Electric field effects 62
2.6 Electromagnetic field effects 66
2.7 Electrical discharges 68
Chapter 3. Measurement and Instrumentation 74
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Terminology 76
3.3 The role of measurement traceability in product quality 76
3.4 National and international measurement standards 76
3.5 Direct-acting analogue measuring instruments 77
3.6 Integrating (energy) metering 82
3.7 Electronic instrumentation 83
3.8 Oscilloscopes 90
3.9 Potentiometers and bridges 96
3.10 Measuring and protection transformers 105
3.11 Magnetic measurements 107
3.12 Transducers 109
3.13 Data recording 115
References 115
Chapter 4. Network Analysis 116
4.1 Introduction 118
4.2 Basic network analysis 118
4.3 Power-system network analysis 143
References 159
Chapter 5. Control System Analysis 160
5.1 Introduction 162
5.2 Laplace transforms and the transfer function 162
5.3 Block diagrams 165
5.4 Feedback 165
5.5 Generally desirable and acceptable behaviour 166
5.6 Stability 166
5.7 Classification of system and static accuracy 167
5.8 Transient behaviour 169
5.9 Root-locus method 172
5.10 Frequency-response methods 174
5.11 State-space description 179
5.12 Sampled-data systems 183
5.13 Some necessary mathematical preliminaries 184
5.14 Sampler and zero-order hold 184
5.15 Block diagrams 185
5.16 Closed-loop systems 186
5.17 Stability 187
5.18 Example 187
5.19 Dead-beat response 189
5.20 Simulation 189
References 194
Bibliography 194
Chapter 6. Digital and Programmable Electronic Systems and Microprocessors 196
6.1 Digital systems 198
6.2 Processing binary information 199
6.3 Sequential logic 204
6.4 Structured design of programmable logic systems 212
6.5 Microprogrammable systems 215
6.6 Programmable systems 216
6.7 Processor instruction sets 224
6.8 Program structures 227
6.9 Software design 227
Chapter 7. Reliability Analysis 232
7.1 Introduction 234
7.2 Reliability definitions and concepts 235
7.3 Reliability activities in system design 236
7.4 Reliability data 236
7.5 Basic reliability assessment 236
7.6 Mission-orientated system reliability evaluation 241
7.7 Availability analysis 243
7.8 Reliability worth/cost 248
References 249
Chapter 8. Electromagnetic Compatibility for Electrical Engineering 250
8.1 Introduction 252
8.2 Characteristics of interference 252
8.3 Simple source models 252
8.4 Signal waveforms and spectra 253
8.5 Emission limits 254
8.6 Design aspects for EMC 255
8.7 EMC measurements 261
8.8 Conclusions 262
References 262
Chapter 9. Power Electronics 264
9.1 Rectification 266
9.2 Controlled rectification 273
9.3 Half-controlled bridge rectifiers 277
9.4 A.c. control 278
9.5 Diode and thyristor protection 281
Chapter10 Fundamental Properties of Materials 284
10.1 Introduction 286
10.2 Mechanical properties 286
10.3 Thermal properties 286
10.4 Electrically conducting materials 286
10.5 Magnetic materials 287
10.6 Dielectric materials 289
10.7 Optical materials 290
10.8 The plasma state 291
Chaspter 11. Conductors and Superconductors 292
11.1 Conducting materials 294
11.2 Superconductors 299
Bibliography 303
Chapter 12. Semiconductors,Thick and Thin Film Microcircuits 304
12.1 Silicon, silicon dioxide, thick- andthin-film technology 306
12.2 Thick- and thin-film microcircuits 308
Bibliography 310
Chapter 13. Insulators 312
13.1 Insulating materials 314
13.2 Properties and testing 315
13.3 Gaseous dielectrics 318
13.4 Liquid dielectrics 321
13.5 Semi-fluid and fusible materials 324
13.6 Varnishes, enamels, paints andlacquers 330
13.7 Solid dielectrics 331
13.8 Composite solid/liquid dielectrics 339
13.9 Irradiation effects 341
13.10 Ferroelectrics 343
13.11 Polymer insulating supports for high voltages 343
Chapter 14. Magnetic Materials 346
14.1 Ferromagnetics 348
14.2 Electrical steels including silicon steels 348
14.3 Soft irons and relay steels 350
14.4 Ferrites 352
14.5 Nickel-iron alloys 355
14.6 Iron-cobalt alloys 357
14.7 Permanent magnet materials 357
Bibliography 360
Chapter 15. Special Alloys and Applications 362
15.1 Fuses 364
15.2 Contacts 365
15.3 Special alloys 370
15.4 Solders 371
15.5 Rare and precious metals 371
15.6 Temperature-sensitive bimetals 373
15.7 Nuclear-reactor materials 373
15.8 Amorphous materials 376
References 378
Chapter 16. Steam Generating Plant 380
16.1 Introduction 382
16.2 Combustion 382
16.3 Sources of chemical energy 382
16.4 Thermodynamics and hydrodynamics of steam generating plant 384
16.5 Types of steam generator 386
16.6 Fuel handling and storage 389
16.7 Pollution control 392
Chapter 17. Turbines 398
17.1 Cycles and types 400
17.2 Turbine technology 402
17.3 Turbine construction 404
17.4 Turbine support plant 407
17.5 Turbine operation and control 410
17.6 Open-cycle plant 411
17.7 Closed-cycle plant 413
17.8 Indirect-cycle plant 413
17.9 Combined-cycle plant 413
17.10 Cogeneration plant 414
17.11 General 415
17.12 Types of plant 416
17.13 Status and potential of hydroelectric generation 418
17.14 Basic elements of a scheme 418
17.15 Dams 419
17.16 Intake works, canals and other conduits 420
17.17 Power station 421
17.18 Turbines 422
17.19 Hydrogenerators 431
17.20 Economics 431
17.21 Pumped storage 432
17.22 Tidal power 433
References 434
Bibliography 434
Chapter 18. Diesel Engines 436
18.1 Diesel-engine plant 438
18.2 Theory and general principles 438
18.3 Engine features 440
18.4 Engine primary systems 440
18.5 Engine ancillaries 442
18.6 A.c. generators 443
18.7 Switchgear and controls 444
18.8 Operational aspects 446
18.9 Plant layout 447
18.10 Economic factors 448
18.11 Total energy 449
Chapter 19. Nuclear Reactor Plant 450
19.1 Introduction 452
19.2 The energy source 452
19.3 Types of reactor 453
19.4 Light water reactors 454
19.5 Soviet reactors 459
19.6 Graphite moderated reactors 459
19.7 Heavy water reactors 464
19.8 The fast-breeder reactor 467
19.9 Reactors in ships and submarines 469
19.10 Fuel for nuclear reactors 470
19.11 Conclusion 471
Bibliography 471
Chapter 20. Alternating Current Generators 472
20.1 Introduction 474
20.2 Airgap flux and open-circuit e.m.f, 1,5-11 475
20.3 A.c. windings 479
20.4 Coils and insulation 482
20.5 Temperature rise 485
20.6 Output equation 486
20.7 Armature reaction 489
20.8 Reactances and time constants8, 50,52-58 491
20.9 Steady-state operation 494
20.10 Synchronising 495
20.11 Operating charts 497
20.12 On-load excitation 499
20.13 Sudden three-phase short circuit6-8,10 501
20.14 Excitation systems 503
20.15 Turbogenerators47, 66-71,74-113 510
20.16 Generator-transformer connections 514
20.17 Hydrogenerators 514
20.18 Salient-pole generators other thanhydrogenerators 518
20.19 Synchronous compensators 520
20.20 Induction generators137-144 520
20.21 Standards 520
Acknowledgements 521
References 521
Bibliography 524
Chapter 21. Alternative Energy Sources 526
21.1 Wind energy 528
21.2 Geothermal energy 529
21.3 Wave energy 530
21.4 Ocean thermal energy 530
21.5 Tidal energy 531
21.6 Solar energy 531
21.7 Direct conversion 532
21.8 Fuel cells 534
21.9 Combined heat and power 537
21.11 Economics 541
21.12 Heat pumps 541
References 551
Chapter 22. Overhead Lines 552
22.1 General 554
22.2 Conductors and earth wires 554
22.3 Conductor fittings 558
22.4 Electrical characteristics 558
22.5 Insulators 561
22.6 Supports 563
22.7 Lightning 565
References 568
Chapter 23. Cables 570
23.1 Introduction 572
23.2 Cable components 575
23.3 General wiring cables and flexiblecords 580
23.4 Supply distribution cables 584
23.5 Transmission cables 592
23.6 Current-carrying capacity 598
23.7 Jointing and accessories 602
23.8 Cable fault location 604
Acknowledgements 609
Further reading 609
Chapter 24. Power Transformers 614
24.1 Introduction 616
24.2 Magnetic circuit 616
24.3 Windings and insulation 620
24.4 Connections 626
24.5 Three-winding transformers 628
24.6 Quadrature booster transformers 629
24.7 On-load tap changing 629
24.8 Cooling 631
24.9 Fittings 633
24.10 Parallel operation 634
24.11 Auto-transformers 634
24.12 Special types 635
24.13 Testing 636
24.14 Maintenance 640
24.15 Surge protection 642
24.16 Purchasing specifications 643
Acknowledgement 643
References 643
Chapter 25.Switchgear 644
25.1 Circuit-switching devices 646
25.2 Primary-circuit-protection devices 663
25.3 L.V. switchgear 666
25.4 H.V. secondary distribution switchgear 668
25.5 H.V. primary distribution switchgear 670
25.6 H.V. transmission switchgear 671
25.7 Generator switchgea 672
25.8 Switching conditions 672
25.9 Switchgear testing 675
25.10 Diagnostic monitoring 676
25.11 Electromagnetic compatibility 676
Acknowledgements 676
Bibliography 677
Chapter 26. Protection 678
26.1 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 680
26.2 Application of protective systems 694
26.3 Testing and commissioning 699
26.4 Overvoltage protection 700
Bibliography 703
Chapter 27. Optical Fibre Technology and Applications 704
27.1 Introduction 706
27.2 Optical fibre fundamentals 706
27.3 Optical fibre cables 710
27.4 British and International Standards 713
27.5 Optical fibre telemetry on overhead power lines 715
27.6 Power equipment monitoring with optical fibre sensors 716
Bibliography 723
Chapter 28. Reactive Power Plant 724
28.1 Introduction 726
28.2 General considerations of reactivevolt-amperes 726
28.3 Management of reactive power 728
28.4 Reactive compensation and transient stability 729
28.5 Variable var compensators 732
28.6 Special aspects of compensation application 740
28.7 Future prospects 742
Bibliography 743
Chapter 29. H.v.d.c.Transmission 746
29.1 Introduction 748
29.2 Applications of h.v.d.c. 749
29.3 Principles of h.v.d.c. converters 750
29.4 Transmission arrangements 754
29.5 Converter station design 756
29.6 Insulation co-ordination of h.v.d.c.converter stations5 760
29.7 H.v.d.c. thyristor valves 763
29.8 Design of harmonic filters for h.v.d.c.converters 767
29.9 Reactive power considerations 772
29.10 Control of h.v.d.c 774
29.11 A.c. system damping controls 778
29.12 Interaction between a.c. and d.c.systems25-27 779
29.13 Multiterminal h.v.d.c. systems36-38 786
29.14 Future trends 788
References 789
Bibliography 790
Chapter 30. Power System Operation and Control 792
30.1 Introduction 794
30.2 Objectives and requirements 794
30.3 System description 795
30.4 Data acquisition and telemetering 797
30.5 Decentralised control: excitationsystems and control characteristics of synchronous machines 801
30.6 Decentralised control: electronic turbine controllers 815
30.7 Decentralised control: substation automation 826
30.8 Decentralised control: pulse controllersfor voltage control with tap-changing transformers 829
30.9 Centralised control 829
30.10 System operation 833
30.11 Reliability considerations for system control 834
References 838
Bibliography 838
Chapter 31. Power System Planning and Economics 840
31.1 Load forecasts 842
31.2 Reliability of supply 843
31.3 Legislation 845
31.4 Choice of generating plant 846
31.5 Plant scheduling 848
31.6 Revenue 849
31.7 British electricity supply systems 851
Chapter 32. Harmonics in Power Systems 856
32.1 Introduction 858
32.2 Harmonic sources 858
32.3 Effect of harmonics 858
32.4 Derivation of harmonics 858
32.5 Harmonic analysis 859
32.6 Harmonic limits 861
References 861
Chapter 33. Installation 862
33.1 Layout 864
33.2 Regulations and specifications 864
33.3 High-voltage supplies 865
33.4 Fault currents 865
33.5 Substations 867
33.6 Wiring systems 869
33.7 Lighting and small power 871
33.8 Floor trunking 872
33.9 Stand-by and emergency supplies 872
33.10 Special buildings 873
33.11 Low-voltage switchgear and protection 873
33.12 Transformers 877
33.13 Power-factor correction 878
33.14 Earthing 879
33.15 Inspection and testing 882
References 885
Chapter 34. Programmable Controllers 886
34.1 Introduction 888
34.2 Programmable controller: technical description 889
34.3 Input output systems 892
34.4 User-designer interfaces 894
34.5 Communication 895
34.6 Graphics displays 896
34.7 Environmental operating conditions 898
34.8 Control systems 900
34.9 Reliability 907
34.10 Mean time to repair 907
34.11 Electrical environment 907
34.12 Earthing 908
34.13 Ultimate protection 908
34.14 Typical applications 908
Acknowledgements 919
References 919
Chapter 35 Semiconductor Devices 920
35.1 Introduction 922
35.2 Charge modulated junction diodes 923
35.3 Bipolar power transistors and Darlingtons 926
35.4 Thyristors 935
35.5 Majority carrier devices 945
35.6 MOS gated devices which also employ charge modulation 950
Acknowledgement 953
References 953
Chapter 36. Power Conversion ircuits and Electrical Drives 954
36.1 Introduction 956
36.2 Fundamental requirements for drive system converters 956
36.3 Power conversion circuits 958
36.4 Control philosophies 973
36.5 Applications and drive selection 976
36.6 Computer control 979
36.7 Electromagnetic compatibility 979
Bibliography 979
Chapter 37. Electromagnetic Machines 980
37.1 Energy conversion 982
37.2 Electromagnetic devices 982
37.3 Industrial rotary and linear motors 994
Chapter 38. Electroheat and Materials Processing 1024
38.1 Introduction 1026
38.2 Direct resistance heating 1026
38.3 Indirect resistance heating 1028
38.4 Electric ovens and furnaces 1032
38.5 Induction heating 1033
38.6 Metal melting 1038
38.7 Dielectric heating 1043
38.8 Ultraviolet processes 1045
38.9 Plasma torches 1046
38.10 Semiconductor plasma processing 1048
38.11 Lasers 1052
Acknowledgements 1059
References 1060
Chapter 39. Welding 1062
39.1 Arc welding 1064
39.2 Resistance welding 1089
Chapter 40 Electrochemical Technology 1098
40.1 Introduction 1100
40.2 Cells and batteries 1100
40.3 Primary cells 1100
40.4 Secondary cells and batteries 1104
40.5 Fuel cells 1110
40.6 Anodising 1110
40.7 Electrodeposition 1111
40.8 Hydrogen and oxygen electrolysis 1112
References 1113
Chapter 41. lllumination 1114
41.1 Light and vision 1116
41.2 Quantities and units 1116
41.3 Photometric concepts 1117
41.4 Lighting design technology 1118
41.5 Lamps 1121
41.6 Choice of lamps 1135
41.7 Lighting design 1136
41.8 Applications 1147
Chapter 42. Environmental Control 1156
42.1 Introduction 1158
42.2 Environmental comfort 1158
42.3 Energy requirements 1162
42.4 Heating and warm-air systems 1165
42.5 Control 1170
42.6 Energy conservation 1174
42.7 Interfaces and associated data 1176
References 1176
Chapter 43. Agriculture and Horticulture 1180
43.1 Introduction 1182
43.2 Electrical installation 1182
43.3 Arable crop production 1183
43.4 Greenhouse and horticultural production 1183
43.5 Livestock and egg production 1184
43.6 Dairy-parlour equipment 1185
43.7 Crop handling and processing 1187
43.8 Crop storage 1188
43.9 Future developments 1189
Chapter 44. Roads 1192
44.1 Electrical equipment of road transport vehicles 1194
44.2 Light rail transit 1204
44.3 Battery vehicles 1208
44.4 Road traffic control and information systems 1213
References 1217
Relevant British Standards 1217
Chapter 45. Railways 1218
45.1 Railway electrification 1220
45.2 Diesel-electric traction 1228
45.3 Systems, EMC and Standards 1230
45.4 Railway signalling and control 1231
Bibliography 1243
Chapter 46. Ships 1244
46.1 Introduction 1246
46.2 Regulations 1246
46.3 Conditions of service 1246
46.4 D.C. installations 1246
46.5 A.C. installations 1247
46.6 Earthing 1247
46.7 Machines and transformers 1247
46.8 Switchgear 1249
46.9 Cables 1250
46.10 Emergency power 1250
46.11 Steering gear 1251
46.12 Refrigerated cargo spaces 1251
46.13 Lighting 1251
46.14 Heating 1252
46.15 Watertight doors 1252
46.16 Ventilating fans 1252
46.17 Radio interference andelectromagnetic compatibility 1252
46.18 Deck auxiliaries 1252
46.19 Remote and automatic control systems 1253
46.20 Tankers 1256
46.21 Steam plant 1256
46.22 Generators 1256
46.23 Diesel engines 1256
46.24 Electric propulsion 1256
Chapter 47. Aircraft 1262
47.1 Introduction 1264
47.2 Engine technology 1264
47.3 Wing technology 1265
47.4 Integrated active controls 1267
47.5 Flight-control systems 1267
47.6 Systems technology 1268
47.7 Hydraulic systems 1269
47.8 Air-frame mounted accessory drives 1270
47.9 Electrohydraulic flight controls 1273
47.10 Electromechanical flight controls 1273
47.11 Aircraft electric power 1274
47.12 Summary of power systems 1274
47.13 Environmental control system 1276
47.14 Digital power/digital load management 1278
References 1279
Chapter 48. Mining Applications 1282
48.1 General 1284
48.2 Power supplies 1285
48.3 Winders 1286
48.4 Underground transport 1287
48.5 Coal-face layout 1290
48.6 Power loaders 1292
48.7 Heading machines 1293
48.8 Flameproof and intrinsically safe equipment 1293
48.9 Gate-end boxes 1295
48.10 Flameproof motors 1298
48.11 Cables, couplers, plugs and sockets 1299
48.12 Drilling machines 1301
48.13 Underground lighting 1301
48.14 Monitoring and control 1302
Chapter 49. Education and Training 1304
49.1 Training and qualifications in the UK 1306
49.2 Engineering education in Europe 1309
49.3 Example of licensing requirements in Canada (Province of Ontario) 1314
References 1316
Chapter 50. Standards 1318
50.1 Introduction 1320
50.2 Organisations preparing electrical standards 1321
50.3 The structure and application of standards 1326
50.4 Testing, certification and approval to standard recommendations 1329
50.5 Sources of standards information 1330
Chapter 51. Purchasing and Procurement 1334
51.1 Purchasing procedures 1336
51.2 Contracting for research services 1338
Acknowledgment 1343
References 1343
Chapter 52. Health and Safety 1344
52.1 The scope of electrical safet yconsiderations 1346
52.2 The nature of electrical injuries 1348
52.3 Failure of electrical equipment 1351
References 1356
Bibliography 1356
Chapter 53. Engineering Economics 1358
53.1 Fundamental concepts of economic analysis 1360
53.2 Time value of money 1360
53.3 Criteria for the evaluation of projects 1362
53.4 Linear programming 1362
Bibliography 1365
Index 1366