Smithells Metals Reference Book (eBook)

Cover 1
Title Page 4
Contents 6
Preface 16
Acknowledgements 18
Disclaimer 19
Contributors 20
1 Related designations 24
References 37
2 Introductory tables and mathematical information 38
2.1 Conversion factors 38
2.1.1 SI units 38
Printed form of units and numbers 38
Heading of columns in tables and labelling of groups 39
Temperatures 39
2.1.2 Temperature scale conversions 50
2.2 Mathematical formulae and statistical principles 50
2.2.1 Algebra 50
Identities 50
Ratio and proportion 52
Logarithms 52
The quadratic equation 52
The cubic equation 53
2.2.2 Series and progressions 54
Numerical series 54
Arithmetic Progression 54
Geometric progression 54
Taylor's series 54
Maclaurin's series 54
Binomial series 54
Logarithmic series 55
Exponential series 55
Trigonometric series 55
Series for hyperbolic functions 55
2.2.3 Trigonometry 56
Definitions and simple relationships 56
Radian measure 56
Compound angles 56
Properties of triangles 57
Hyperbolic functions 58
2.2.4 Mensuration 59
Plane figures 59
Solid figures 59
2.2.5 Co-ordinate geometry (two dimensions, rectangular axes) 60
Straight line 60
Triangle 61
Circle 61
Ellipse 61
Parabola 61
Hyperbola 61
2.2.6 Calculus 62
Differentials 62
Integrals 62
Elementary forms 62
Differential equations 63
Equations of the first order 63
2.2.7 Introduction to statistics 65
2.2.7.1 Introduction and cross-references 65
2.2.7.2 Descriptive statistics 66
Measures of centre 66
Measures of variability 67
Histogram 67
The boxplot 69
Laws of probabilities 69
Permutations 71
Combinations 71
Random variables and their frequency functions 72
The binomial PMF 72
The poisson distribution 73
Continuous frequency functions 73
The uniform pdf 74
The Normal (or Gaussian) distribution N(& #956
The percentiles of a Normal distribution 76
The reproductive property of the Normal distribution 76
The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) 77
The Normal approximation to the binomial 77
The exponential pdf 78
2.2.7.3 Statistical inference 79
Properties of point estimators 80
Sampling distributions of statistics with underlying normal parent populations 80
Confidence intervals for one parameter of a normal Universe 81
Confidence intervals for parameters of two normal Universes 82
2.2.7.4 Statistical Process Control (SPC) 83
Shewhart control charts for variables 83
S- and x-charts 84
Shewhart control chart for fraction nonconforming (The P-chart) 85
Shewhart control chart for number of nonconformities per unit (The u-chart) 86
3 General physical and chemical constants 88
3.1 Radioactive isotopes and radiation sources 92
References 98
4 X-ray analysis of metallic materials 100
4.1 Introduction and cross references 100
4.2 Excitation of X-rays 100
4.2.1 X-ray wavelengths 101
4.3 X-ray techniques 110
4.3.1 X-ray diffraction 110
4.3.1.1 Experimental methods 110
4.3.1.2 Accessory attachments for diffractometers 113
4.3.2 Specific applications 113
4.3.2.1 Phase identification and quantitative measurements 113
4.3.2.2 Determination of retained austenite in steel 116
4.3.2.3 X-ray residual stress measurements 117
Measurement of microstresses 120
4.3.2.4 Preferred orientation 121
4.3.2.5 Specimen preparation 122
Extraction techniques 122
4.3.2.6 Formulae and crystallographic data 125
Intensities 125
4.4 X-ray results 138
4.4.1 Metal working 138
4.4.2 Crystal structure 138
4.5 X-ray fluorescence 148
References 150
5 Crystallography 152
5.1 The structure of crystals 152
5.1.1 Translation groups 152
5.1.2 Symmetry elements 153
5.1.3 The point group 153
5.1.4 The space group 154
5.2 The Schoenflies system of point- and space-group notation 154
5.3 The Hermann–Mauguin system of point- and space-group notation 154
5.3.1 Notes on the space-group tables 157
6 Crystal chemistry 164
6.1 Structures of metals, metalloids and their compounds 164
7 Metallurgically important minerals 226
Bibliography 226
8 Thermochemical data 236
8.1 Symbols 236
8.2 Changes of phase (phase diagrams may be found in Chapter 11) 237
8.3 Heat, entropy and free energy of formation 243
8.4 Metallic systems of unlimited mutual solubility 250
8.5 Metallurgically important compounds 255
8.6 Molar heat capacities and specific heats 274
8.7 Vapour pressures 286
References„Thermochemical data 293
9 Physical properties of molten salts 294
10 Metallography 348
10.1 Macroscopic examination 349
10.2 Microscopic examination 354
Mounting 354
Grinding 356
Mechanical polishing 358
Electrolytic polishing 361
Chemical polishing 362
Etching 368
1. Dark field illumination 369
2. Interference microscopy 369
3. Polarised light 369
4. Colour 371
5. Physical methods 371
6. Chemical and electrochemical etching 371
7. Washing and drying 373
Taper sectioning 375
10.3 Metallographic methods for specific metals 376
10.3.1 Aluminium 376
Preparation 376
Etching 378
Electrolytic etching of aluminium alloys 378
Anodising 381
Grain colour etching 381
Etching to produce etch pits 381
10.3.2 Antimony and bismuth 382
Preparation 382
Etching 382
10.3.3 Beryllium 382
Preparation 382
Etching 382
10.3.4 Cadmium 383
Preparation 383
Etching 383
10.3.5 Chromium 384
Preparation 384
Etching 384
10.3.6 Cobalt 384
Preparation 384
Etching 384
10.3.7 Copper 384
Preparation 384
Etching 385
Leaded Copper alloys 386
Electrolytic etching of Copper alloys 389
10.3.8 Gold 389
Preparation 389
Etching 391
Electrolytic etching of Gold 391
10.3.9 Indium 391
Preparation 391
Etching 391
10.3.10 Iron and steel 392
Preparation 392
Micrographic constituents observed 393
Etching of Iron, Steel and Cast irons 394
Lead in Steels 396
Inclusions and precipitates in Steel 396
Ferromagnetic analysis 397
10.3.11 Lead 398
Preparation 398
Etching 398
10.3.12 Magnesium 400
Preparation 400
Etching 400
Electrolytic etching of Magnesium alloys 400
Non metallic inclusions in Magnesium-based alloys 403
Magnesium Alloys 403
10.3.13 Molybdenum 404
Preparation 404
Etching 404
10.3.14 Nickel 404
Preparation 404
Etching 405
Electrolytic etching of Nickel and its alloys 405
10.3.15 Niobium 407
Preparation 407
10.3.16 Platinum group metals 407
Preparation 407
Etching 407
10.3.17 Silicon 408
Preparation 408
Etching 408
10.3.18 Silver 409
Preparation 409
Electrolytic etching of Silver 409
10.3.19 Tantalum 410
Preparation 410
Etching 410
10.3.20 Tin 410
Preparation 410
Etching 410
Electrolytic etching of Tin alloys 411
10.3.21 Titanium 411
Preparation 411
Etching 413
10.3.22 Tungsten 413
Preparation 413
Etching 413
Electrolytic etching of Tungsten 413
10.3.23 Uranium 414
Preparation 414
Etching 415
10.3.24 Zinc 415
Preparation 415
Etching 416
Electrolytic etching of Zinc alloys 416
10.3.25 Zirconium (and Hafnium) 417
Preparation 417
Etching 417
Electrolytic etching 418
10.3.26 Bearing metals (lead-tin-antimony), low-melting point solders, and type metals 418
Preparation 418
Etching 418
Electrolytic etching 418
10.3.27 Cemented carbides and other hard alloys 419
Preparation 419
Etching 419
Electrolytic etching of Tungsten Carbide–Cobalt and Tungsten Carbide–Titanium Carbide–Cobalt alloys 419
10.3.28 Powdered and sintered metals 420
Preparation 420
10.4 Electron metallography and surface analysis techniques 421
10.4.1 Transmission electron microscopy 421
10.4.2 Scanning electron microscopy 427
10.4.3 Electron spectroscopy and surface analytical techniques 427
10.5 Quantitative image analysis 428
10.6 Scanning acoustic microscopy 429
10.7 Applications in failure analysis 430
References 431
11 Equilibrium diagrams 436
11.1 Index of binary diagrams 436
11.2 Equilibrium diagrams 442
11.3 Acknowledgements 959
11.3.1 Binary systems 959
11.3.2 References to J. less-common Metals marked (3) in 11.1 Index of binary diagrams 968
11.4 Ternary systems and higher systems 968
12 Gas–metal systems 970
12.1 The solution of gases in metals 970
12.1.1 Dilute solutions of diatomic gases 970
12.1.2 Complex gas–metal systems 971
12.1.3 Solutions of hydrogen 971
12.1.4 Solutions of nitrogen 977
12.1.5 Solutions of oxygen 977
12.1.6 Solutions of the noble gases 984
12.1.7 Theoretical and practical aspects of gas–metal equilibria 984
References 993
13 Diffusion in metals 998
13.1 Introduction 998
13.2 Methods of measuring D 1001
13.2.1 Steady-state methods 1001
13.2.2 Non-steady-state methods 1002
(i) Diffusion couple method 1002
(ii) In-diffusion and out-diffusion methods 1002
(iii) Thin layer methods 1003
13.2.3 Indirect methods, not based on Fick’s laws 1004
13.3 Mechanisms of diffusion 1005
References 1005
Textbooks 1005
Reviews 1005
Summary of methods for measuring D 1005
14 General physical properties 1118
14.1 The physical properties of pure metals 1118
14.2 The thermophysical properties of liquid metals 1126
14.2.1 Density and thermal expansion coefficient 1126
14.2.2 Surface tension 1126
14.2.3 Viscosity 1128
14.2.4 Heat capacity 1132
14.2.5 Electrical resistivity 1132
14.2.6 Thermal conductivity 1132
14.3 The physical properties of aluminium and aluminium alloys 1133
14.4 The physical properties of copper and copper alloys 1136
14.5 The physical properties of magnesium and magnesium alloys 1139
14.6 The physical properties of nickel and nickel alloys 1142
14.7 The physical properties of titanium and titanium alloys 1145
14.8 The physical properties of zinc and zinc alloys 1146
14.9 The physical properties of zirconium alloys 1146
14.10 The physical properties of pure tin 1146
14.11 The physical properties of steels 1147
15 Elastic properties, damping capacity and shape memory alloys 1164
15.1 Elastic properties 1164
15.1.1 Elastic compliances and elastic stiffnesses of single crystals 1167
15.1.2 Principal elastic compliances and elastic stiffnesses at room temperature 1168
15.2 Damping capacity 1171
15.2.1 Anelastic damping 1173
Views 1173
15.3 Shape memory alloys 1200
15.3.1 Mechanical properties of shape memory alloys 1200
16 Temperature measurement and thermoelectric properties 1210
16.1 Temperature measurement 1210
16.2 Thermocouple reference tables 1213
16.3 Thermoelectric materials 1219
16.3.1 Introduction 1219
16.3.2 Survey of materials 1219
16.3.3 Preparation methods 1221
17 Radiative properties of metals 1222
Definitions and emittance 1222
Effects of surface temperature 1223
Directional dependence of emittance 1223
Total emittances 1224
Temperature measurement and emittance 1225
Emittance values 1225
References 1232
18 Electron emission 1234
18.1 Thermionic emission 1234
18.2 Photoelectric emission 1237
18.3 Secondary emission 1238
18.4 Auger emission 1239
18.5 Electron emission under positive ion bombardment 1241
18.6 Field emission 1241
References 1243
19 Electrical properties 1244
19.1 Resistivity 1244
19.2 Superconductivity 1250
References 1252
20 Magnetic materials and their properties 1254
20.1 Magnetic materials 1254
20.2 Permanent magnet materials 1255
20.2.1 Alnico alloys 1260
20.2.2 Ferrite 1260
20.2.3 Rare earth cobalt alloys 1261
20.2.4 Neodymium iron boron 1261
20.2.5 Bonded materials 1262
20.2.6 Other materials 1262
20.2.7 Properties, names and applications 1262
20.3 Magnetically soft materials 1262
20.3.1 Silicon–iron alloys 1263
20.3.2 Ferrites and garnets 1265
20.3.3 Nickel–iron alloys 1268
20.3.4 Amorphous alloy material 1269
20.4 High-saturation and constant-permeability alloys 1269
20.5 Magnetic powder core materials 1270
20.6 Magnetic temperature-compensating materials 1270
20.7 Non-magnetic steels and cast irons 1271
Appendix 1274
Units and definitions 1274
Magnetic poles 1274
Magnetic dipole 1274
Magnetic moment m 1274
Magnetic field strength H 1274
Magnetisation M 1274
Polarisation J 1274
Saturation magnetisation M[sub(s)] and polarisation J[sub(s)] 1274
Magnetisation per unit mass & #963
Magnetic flux density B (or magnetic induction) 1274
Magnetic constant & #956
Magnetic flux & #966
Magnetic susceptibility & #954
Mass susceptibility & #967
Magnetic permeability & #956
Curie point T[sub(c)] 1275
Néel point N[sub(c)] 1275
Magnetic hysteresis 1275
Remanence B[sub(r)] 1275
Coercivity H[sub(c)] 1275
Energy Product and (BH)[sub(max)] 1275
Magnetostriction 1276
Magnetic units and conversion factors 1276
References 1276
General reading 1276
Elements 1276
Steels and cast irons 1276
Reviews 1276
Permanent magnets 1277
Bonded magnets 1277
Non-metallic magnets 1277
Applications 1277
High-permeability materials (Si-Fe, Ni-Fe and Ferrites) 1277
Non-magnetic steels and cast irons 1277
Standards 1277
21 Mechanical testing 1278
21.1 Hardness testing 1278
21.1.1 Brinell hardness 1278
Relation of load to ball diameter 1278
21.1.2 Rockwell hardness 1279
21.1.3 Rockwell superficial hardness 1280
21.1.4 Vickers hardness test 1280
21.1.5 Micro-indentation hardness testing 1280
21.1.6 Hardness conversion tables 1281
21.2 Tensile testing 1285
21.2.1 Standard test pieces 1285
21.3 Impact testing of notched bars 1286
21.3.1 Izod test 1287
Test pieces 1287
Presentation of results 1287
21.3.2 Charpy test 1287
Test pieces 1288
Presentation of results 1289
21.4 Fracture toughness testing 1289
21.4.1 Linear-elastic (K[sub(Ic)]) 1289
21.4.2 K–R curve 1291
21.4.3 Elastic-Plastic (J[sub(Ic)], CTOD) 1292
21.5 Fatigue testing 1293
21.5.1 Load-controlled smooth specimen tests 1293
21.5.2 Strain-controlled smooth specimen tests 1294
21.5.3 Fatigue crack growth testing 1294
21.6 Creep testing 1296
21.7 Non-destructive testing and evaluation 1297
21.7.1 Ultrasonic 1298
21.7.2 Radiography 1298
21.7.3 Electrical and magnetic methods 1299
Magnetic particle testing (MT) 1299
Magnetic flux methods 1299
Eddy current method 1299
21.7.4 Acoustic emission testing (AE) 1299
21.7.5 Thermal wave imaging 1299
References 1300
22 Mechanical properties of metals and alloys 1302
22.1 Mechanical properties of aluminium and aluminium alloys 1302
22.1.1 Alloy designation system for wrought aluminium 1302
22.1.2 Temper designation system for aluminium alloys 1303
22.2 Mechanical properties of copper and copper alloys 1327
22.3 Mechanical properties of lead and lead alloys 1347
22.4 Mechanical properties of magnesium and magnesium alloys 1350
22.5 Mechanical properties of nickel and nickel alloys 1362
22.5.1 Directionally solidified and single crystal cast superalloys 1381
22.6 Mechanical properties of titanium and titanium alloys 1383
22.7 Mechanical properties of zinc and zinc alloys 1394
22.8 Mechanical properties of zirconium and zirconium alloys 1395
22.9 Tin and its alloys 1396
22.10 Steels 1399
22.11 Other metals of industrial importance 1458
22.12 Bearing alloys 1461
Wear resistance 1461
Embeddability 1461
Conformability 1461
Strength 1461
Corrosion resistance 1461
Thermal expansion 1462
23 Sintered materials 1464
23.1 The PM process 1464
23.2 The products 1464
23.3 Manufacture and properties of powders 1465
23.3.1 Powder manufacture 1465
23.3.2 Properties of metal powders and how they are measured 1466
Chemical composition 1466
Particle size and size distribution 1467
23.4 Properties of powder compacts 1467
23.5 Sintering 1471
23.6 Ferrous components 1471
23.7 Copper-based components 1472
23.8 Aluminium components 1476
23.9 Determination of the mechanical properties of sintered components 1476
23.10 Heat treatment and hardenability of sintered steels 1478
23.11 Case hardening of sintered steels 1478
23.12 Steam treatment 1478
23.13 Wrought PM materials 1478
23.13.1 Refractory metals 1487
23.13.2 Superalloys 1488
23.13.3 Copper 1488
23.13.4 Lead 1488
23.13.5 Aluminium 1490
23.13.6 Ferrous alloys 1490
23.13.7 Aluminium matrix composites 1490
23.14 Spray forming 1491
23.15 Injection moulding 1492
23.16 Hardmetals and related hard metals 1494
Uses 1494
Manufacture 1494
Hot isostatic pressing 1495
Compositions 1495
Alternative binders 1499
Coatings 1499
Tool life 1499
23.17 Novel and emerging PM materials 1499
24 Lubricants 1502
24.1 Introduction 1502
24.1.1 Main regimes of lubrication 1502
Hydrodynamic lubrication (HL) 1502
Hydrostatic lubrication 1502
Boundary lubrication 1502
Mixed lubrication 1502
24.2 Lubrication condition, friction and wear 1502
24.3 Characteristics of lubricating oils 1503
24.3.1 Viscosity 1503
24.3.2 Boundary lubrication properties 1503
24.3.3 Chemical stability 1504
24.3.4 Physical properties 1504
24.4 Mineral oils 1504
24.5 Emulsions 1507
24.6 Water-based lubricants 1508
24.7 Synthetic oils 1508
24.7.1 Diesters 1508
24.7.2 Neopentyl polyol esters 1508
24.7.3 Triaryl phosphate esters 1508
24.7.4 Fluorocarbons 1509
24.7.5 Polyglycols 1509
24.8 Greases 1509
24.8.1 Composition 1509
24.8.2 Properties 1511
24.9 Oil additives 1512
24.9.1 Machinery lubricants 1512
24.9.2 Cutting oils 1513
24.9.3 Lubricants for chipless-forming 1514
24.9.4 Rolling oils 1514
24.10 Solid lubricants 1514
25 Friction and wear 1518
25.1 Friction 1518
25.1.1 Friction of unlubricated surfaces 1518
Definition 1518
Static and kinetic friction 1518
Basic laws of friction 1518
25.1.2 Friction of unlubricated materials 1518
25.1.3 Friction of lubricated surfaces 1526
Definitions 1526
25.1.4 Boundary lubrication 1526
25.1.5 Extreme pressure (EP) lubricants 1526
25.2 Wear 1529
Definitions 1529
25.2.1 Abrasive wear 1529
25.2.2 Adhesive wear 1530
25.2.3 Erosive wear 1531
25.2.4 Fretting wear 1532
25.2.5 Corrosive wear 1532
References 1543
26 Casting alloys and foundry data 1544
26.1 Casting techniques 1544
26.2 Patterns„crucibles„fluxing 1553
26.2.1 Pattern materials 1555
Mould dressing, powders, paints 1556
26.2.2 Crucibles and melting vessels 1558
Types of crucibles 1558
26.2.3 Iron and steel crucibles„fluxing 1558
26.3 Aluminium casting alloys 1563
26.4 Copper base casting alloys 1582
26.5 Nickel-base casting alloys 1595
26.6 Magnesium alloys 1599
26.7 Zinc base casting alloys 1611
26.8 Steel castings 1613
26.8.1 Casting characteristics 1613
26.8.2 Heat treatment 1613
Homogenising 1613
Annealing 1613
Sub-critical annealing 1614
Normalising 1614
Quenching (or hardening) and tempering 1614
Surface hardening 1614
26.9 Cast irons 1627
26.9.1 Classification of cast irons 1627
26.9.2 General purpose cast irons 1627
Grey irons 1627
Ferrosilicon 1631
Briquettes 1631
Fluidity of cast iron 1633
Malleable irons 1634
Nodular irons 1635
26.9.3 Compacted graphite irons 1637
26.9.4 Applications of special purpose cast irons 1642
High temperature 1642
Corrosion 1643
Abrasion 1643
26.10 Acknowledgements 1643
27 Engineering ceramics and refractory materials 1644
27.1 Physical and mechanical properties of engineering ceramics 1644
27.2 Prepared but unshaped refractory materials 1650
27.3 Aluminous cements 1650
27.4 Castable materials 1651
27.5 Mouldable materials 1657
27.6 Ramming material 1657
27.7 Gunning material 1657
27.8 Design of refractory linings 1657
28 Fuels 1662
28.1 Coal 1662
28.1.1 Analysis and testing of coal 1662
Sampling for analysis 1662
Proximate analysis consist of the following determinations (BS 1016: 1991) 1662
Ultimate analysis 1664
Calarific value 1664
Calculation of calorific value from ultimate analysis 1664
BS Swelling number 1664
Roga test 1665
Gray king coke type 1665
Audibert-Arnu dilatometer test 1665
Ash fusion point 1665
Calculation of the mineral matter content of coal 1665
28.1.2 Classification 1666
Fuel research board/NCB Classification 1666
ASTM Classification of coals by rank 1668
ECE International classification of hard coals 1668
28.1.3 Physical properties of coal 1669
28.2 Metallurgical cokes 1669
28.2.1 Analysis and testing of coke 1669
Sampling for analysis and Shatter test 1669
General 1671
Chemical analysis 1671
Other tests 1671
28.2.2 Properties of metallurgical coke 1672
Blast furnace coke 1672
Foundry coke 1672
Formed coke 1674
Bulk density coke 1674
Specific heat of coke 1674
28.3 Gaseous fuels, liquid fuels and energy requirements 1674
28.3.1 Liquid fuels 1674
(A) Calorific value 1675
(B) Specific gravity correction coefficients per 1°C 1677
(C) Specific heat 1677
(D) Thermal conductivity 1678
(E) Viscosity 1678
(F) Flash point 1678
28.3.2 Gaseous fuels 1679
(A) Blast furnace gas 1679
(B) Liquefied Petroleum Gas, LPG 1679
(C) Natural gas 1679
(D) Producer gas 1680
(E) Refinery gas 1680
(F) Town gas 1680
(G) Analysis of fuel gases 1681
(H) Limits of inflammability 1681
(I) Oxygen and pre-heat 1682
28.3.3 Energy use data for various metallurgical processes (data shown is for operations in the USA) 1683
References 1685
29 Heat treatment 1686
29.1 General introduction and cross references 1686
29.2 Heat treatment of steel 1686
29.2.1 Introduction 1686
29.2.2 Transformations in steels 1686
Iron–Carbon (Fe–C) phase diagram 1688
Structural classification of Steels 1690
Isothermal and continuous cooling transformation diagrams for Steels 1693
TTT diagrams (ITD) 1693
CCT diagrams (CCD) 1695
29.2.3 Hardenability 1697
29.2.4 Hardenability measurement 1702
Jominy bar end-quench test 1703
Grossmann hardenability 1705
29.2.5 Austenitisation 1706
29.2.6 Annealing 1708
Full annealing 1709
Partial (intercritical) annealing 1710
Process (subcritical) annealing 1711
Recrystallisation annealing 1712
Isothermal annealing 1712
Spheroidising (soft annealing) 1712
Diffusion (homogensing) annealing 1713
Normalising 1713
Stress relieving 1714
29.2.7 Quenching 1715
Quenchant selection and severity 1715
Component support and loading 1716
Surface condition 1716
Heating and atmosphere control 1717
Retained Austenite 1718
Quenchant uniformity 1718
29.2.8 Tempering 1718
29.2.9 Austempering 1725
29.2.10 Martempering 1726
29.2.11 Carburising 1727
Thermodynamics of the carburising processes 1727
Kinetics of the carburisation process 1728
Carbon deposition at the steel surface 1728
Diffusion of carbon into the bulk 1730
Classification of carburising processes 1730
Steel grades used for carburising 1735
Heat treatment after carburising 1735
Structure–property relationship 1740
29.2.12 Carbonitriding 1744
The physical–chemical basis of the cabonitriding processes 1744
Process overview 1744
Deposition of carbon and nitrogen and diffusion into the steel 1744
Role of nitrogen in the carbonitriding process 1746
Changes of carbon potential in the furnace atmosphere 1746
Increasing the diffusion coefficient of carbon in austenite 1746
The activity of carbon in austenite 1746
Changes in the equilibrium conditions in the Fe–Fe[sub(3)]C system 1747
Response to quenching 1747
Reduction of the martensite start temperature 1747
Reduction of retained austenite 1747
Control of carbon and nitrogen within the diffusion layer 1747
The carbonitriding procedure 1747
Heat treatment after carbonitriding 1748
The influence of structural factors on the properties of carbonitrided layers 1748
Steels used in carbonitriding processes 1748
29.3 Heat treatment of aluminium alloys 1751
29.3.1 Introduction to aluminium heat treating 1751
29.3.2 A brief description of aluminium physical metallurgy 1752
29.3.2.1 Al–Cu alloys 1752
29.3.2.2 Al–Cu–Mg alloys 1752
29.3.2.3 Al–Mg–Si alloys 1752
29.3.2.4 Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys 1752
29.3.3 Defects associated with heat treatment 1753
29.3.4 Solution treatment 1753
29.3.4.1 Oxidation 1754
29.3.4.2 Eutectic melting 1755
29.3.4.3 Under-heating 1755
29.3.4.4 Furnaces for solution treatment 1755
29.3.5 Quenching 1756
29.3.5.1 Quench rate effects 1757
29.3.5.2 Warpage and distortion 1757
29.3.5.3 Grain boundary precipitation 1758
29.3.6 Ageing (natural and artificial) 1759
29.3.6.1 Natural ageing 1759
29.3.6.2 Artificial ageing 1759
29.3.7 Appendix: Quenchants 1760
29.3.7.1 Cold water quenching 1762
29.3.7.2 Hot water quenching 1762
29.3.7.3 Polymer quenching 1763
References 1764
30 Metal cutting and forming 1770
30.1 Introduction and cross-references 1770
30.2 Metal cutting operations 1770
30.2.1 Turning 1770
30.2.1.1 Hard turning 1770
30.2.2 Boring 1770
30.2.3 Drilling 1771
30.2.3.1 Conventional drilling 1771
30.2.3.2 Deep hole drilling 1771
30.2.3.3 Microdrilling 1771
30.2.4 Reaming 1771
30.2.5 Milling 1771
30.2.5.1 Face milling 1771
30.2.5.2 End milling 1772
30.2.5.3 Peripheral (or plain) milling 1772
30.2.5.4 Up-milling and down-milling 1772
30.2.5.5 Planing and shaping 1772
30.2.5.6 Broaching 1772
30.2.5.7 Tapping and threading 1772
Tapping 1772
Thread turning 1772
Thread milling 1773
Die threading 1773
Thread rolling 1773
30.3 Abrasive machining processes 1773
30.3.1 Surface grinding 1773
30.3.2 Cylindrical grinding 1773
30.3.3 Centreless grinding 1773
30.3.4 Plunge grinding 1773
30.3.5 Creep feed grinding 1773
30.3.6 Honing 1774
30.3.7 Microsising 1774
30.3.8 Belt grinding 1774
30.3.9 Disc grinding 1774
30.4 Deburring 1774
30.5 Metal forming operations 1774
30.5.1 Introduction 1774
30.5.2 Massive forming operations 1774
30.5.2.1 Extrusion 1775
30.5.2.2 Forging 1775
30.5.2.3 Rolling 1776
30.5.2.4 Drawing 1776
30.5.3 Sheet-metal forming operations 1776
30.5.4 Superplasticity 1776
30.6 Machinability and formability of materials 1777
30.6.1 Definitions 1777
30.6.1.1 Machinability as a material property 1777
30.6.1.2 Machinability as a factor in tool life 1777
30.6.1.3 Machinability in terms of the cutting speed 1777
30.6.1.4 Other factors, criteria, tests and indices 1777
30.6.2 Formability 1777
30.7 Coolants and lubricants 1778
30.7.1 Liquid metal working fluids 1778
30.7.1.1 Oil based fluids 1778
30.7.1.2 Soluble or emulsifiable oils 1778
30.7.1.3 Semi-synthetics 1778
30.7.1.4 Synthetic cutting fluids 1778
30.7.2 Gaseous fluids and gaseous-liquid mixtures 1779
30.8 Non-traditional machining techniques 1779
30.8.1 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) 1779
30.8.2 Fast Hole EDM drilling 1779
30.8.3 Waterjet and abrasive waterjet machining 1779
30.8.4 Plasma cutting 1779
30.8.5 Photochemical machining 1780
30.8.6 Electrochemical machining 1780
30.8.7 Ultrasonic machining 1780
30.8.8 Lasers 1780
30.8.8.1 Lasers in rapid prototyping and freeforming 1780
30.9 Occupational safety issues 1781
30.9.1 Machine guarding 1781
30.9.2 Hazardous materials 1781
30.9.3 Noise exposure 1781
30.9.4 Ergonomics 1781
References 1781
31 Corrosion 1786
31.1 Introduction 1786
31.2 Types of corrosion 1786
31.3 Uniform corrosion 1786
31.3.1 Galvanic corrosion 1787
31.3.2 Erosion, cavitation, and fretting corrosion 1788
31.4 Localised forms of corrosion 1789
31.4.1 Crevice corrosion 1789
31.4.2 Dealloying corrosion 1790
31.4.3 Environmental cracking„stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue cracking 1791
31.4.4 Hydrogen damage 1792
31.4.5 Intergranular corrosion 1793
31.4.6 Pitting corrosion 1794
31.5 Biocorrosion 1795
Bibliography 1797
References 1797
32 Electroplating and metal finishing 1800
32.1 Polishing compositions 1800
Aloxite 1800
Alumina 1800
Emery powder 1800
Tripoli 1800
Crocus powder 1800
Rouge 1800
Black rouge 1801
Green rouge 1801
Vienna lime 1801
Carborundum 1801
32.2 Cleaning and pickling processes 1801
Vapour degreasing 1801
Emulsion cleaning 1801
32.3 Anodising and plating processes 1805
32.4 Electroplating process 1807
32.5 Plating processes for magnesium alloys 1815
Dow process 1815
Conditions 1815
Electroless plating on Magnesium 1815
‘Gas plating’ of Magnesium (vapour plating) 1815
32.6 Electroplating process parameters 1816
32.7 Miscellaneous coating processes 1817
(1) Autocatalytic plating 1817
(2) Composite coatings 1817
(3) Electrostatic and electrophoretic methods of paint application 1817
(4) Coating with ceramic materials 1817
(5) Mechanical plating 1818
32.8 Plating formulae for non-conducting surfaces 1818
(1) Metal powders 1818
(2) Silver reduction 1818
(3) ‘Vacuum metallising’ 1819
32.9 Methods of stripping electroplated coatings 1819
Cadmium or Tin from Steel 1819
Chromium 1819
Copper from Steel 1819
Copper from Zinc and Zinc base diecastings 1819
Copper, Nickel, etc., from Magnesium 1820
Lead from Steel, Copper and Brass 1820
Nickel from Copper and Brass 1820
Nickel from Steel 1820
Silver from Brass 1820
Zinc from Steel 1820
32.10 Conversion coating processes 1820
(1) Phosphating 1820
(2) Chromating 1821
(3) Colouring of metals 1821
32.11 Glossary of trade names for coating processes 1822
32.11.1 Wet processes 1822
(1) Phosphate processes 1822
(2) Alkaline oxidation processes 1823
(3) Chromate processes 1823
(4) Anodic oxidation of Aluminium and its alloys (Anodising) 1823
(5) Immersion processes for the treatment of Aluminium alloys 1823
(6) Non-electrolytic processes 1823
(7) Electroplating and electrodeposition processes 1823
32.11.2 Dry processes 1824
(1) Thermal processes 1824
(2) Metal spraying processes 1824
33 Welding 1826
33.1 Introduction and cross-reference 1826
33.2 Glossary of welding terms 1826
33.3 Resistance welding 1831
33.3.1 The influence of metallurgical properties on resistance weldability 1831
33.3.2 The resistance welding of various metals and alloys 1832
Steels 1832
Aluminium and Aluminium alloys 1833
Copper and Copper alloys 1833
Magnesium and Magnesium alloys 1834
Nickel and Nickel alloys 1834
Refractory metals 1834
Dissimilar metals 1835
33.4 Solid-state welding 1835
33.4.1 Friction welding 1835
Friction stir welding 1837
33.4.2 Ultrasonic welding 1838
33.4.3 Diffusion welding 1838
Pressure 1839
Temperature 1839
Surface preparation 1840
33.5 Fusion welding 1840
33.5.1 The fusion welding of metals and alloys„ferrous metals 1840
Mild Steels 1840
Gas welding 1841
Metal arc welding 1841
Automatic processes employing flux 1842
Gas-shielded welding processes 1842
Low alloy Steels 1842
HAZ liquation cracking 1847
Lamellar tearing 1847
Stress relief cracking 1848
High alloy heat and Corrosion-resistant Steels 1848
Martensitic stainless Steels 1848
Ferritic Stainless Steels 1849
Austenitic Stainless Steels 1849
Clad Steels 1852
Cast Steels 1853
Cast Irons 1853
33.5.2 Non-ferrous metals 1854
Aluminium and Aluminium alloys 1854
Aluminium castings 1856
Dissimilar Aluminium alloys 1856
33.5.3 Copper and copper alloys 1856
Copper–Aluminium alloys 1859
Copper–Nickel alloys 1859
Copper–Silicon alloys 1859
Copper–Tin alloys 1859
Copper–Zinc alloys 1860
Beryllium–Copper 1860
Cadmium–Copper 1860
Chromium–Copper 1860
Other Copper-rich alloys 1860
33.5.4 Lead and lead alloys 1860
33.5.5 Magnesium alloys 1860
33.5.6 Nickel and nickel alloys 1861
33.5.7 Noble metals 1864
Silver 1864
Gold 1864
Platinum 1864
33.5.8 Refractory metals 1864
Titanium and Titanium alloys 1865
Niobium and Tantalum and their alloys 1865
Molybdenum 1865
Zirconium alloys 1865
Uranium 1865
33.5.9 Zinc and zinc alloys 1865
33.5.10 Dissimilar metals 1865
33.6 Major standards relating to welding, brazing and soldering 1866
33.7 Bibliography and sources of information 1881
Welding processes 1881
Welding processes„general 1881
Resistance welding 1882
Friction welding 1882
Metals and alloys 1882
Steels 1882
Aluminium and aluminium alloys 1882
Copper and copper alloys 1882
Magnesium alloys 1882
Nickel and nickel alloys 1883
Refractory metals 1883
Non-ferrous metals„general 1883
Dissimilar metals 1883
34 Soldering and brazing 1884
34.1 Introduction and cross-reference 1884
34.2 Quality assurance 1884
34.3 Soldering 1885
34.3.1 General considerations 1885
34.3.2 Choice of flux 1885
34.3.3 Control of corrosion 1888
34.3.4 Solder formulations 1888
34.3.5 Cleaning 1888
34.3.6 Product assurance 1892
34.4 Brazing 1892
34.4.1 General design consideration 1892
34.4.2 Joint design 1892
34.4.3 Precleaning and surface preparation 1894
34.4.4 Positioning of filler metal 1894
34.4.5 Heating methods 1895
Torch brazing 1895
Furnace brazing 1895
Induction brazing 1895
Electric resistance brazing 1895
Salt bath dip brazing 1895
34.4.6 Brazeability of materials and braze alloy compositions 1896
34.5 Diffusion soldering or brazing 1896
34.6 Bibliography and sources of information 1904
35 Vapour deposited coatings and thermal spraying 1906
35.1 Physical vapour deposition 1906
35.1.1 Evaporation (E) 1906
Reactive Evaporation (RE) 1906
Activated Reactive Evaporation (ARE) 1906
Ion Plating (IP) 1906
Reactive Ion Plating (RIP) 1906
35.1.2 Sputtering (S) 1906
Sputter Ion Plating (SIP) 1907
Reactive Sputter Plating (RSP) 1907
Magnetron Sputtering (MS) 1907
35.1.3 Ion cleaning 1907
35.2 Chemical vapour deposition 1907
Plasma Activated or Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PACVD or PECVD) 1907
Metal Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD) 1907
Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI) 1907
35.3 Thermal spraying 1918
35.3.1 Combustion wire spraying 1919
35.3.2 Combustion powder spraying 1919
35.3.3 Electric wire arc spraying 1919
35.3.4 High Velocity Oxy-Fuel spraying (HVOF) 1919
35.3.5 Plasma spraying 1919
36 Superplasticity 1922
References 1935
37 Metal-matrix composites 1942
References 1947
38 Non-conventional and emerging metallic materials 1948
38.1 Introduction 1948
38.2 Cross references 1948
38.3 Structural intermetallic compounds 1948
38.3.1 Sources of information on structural intermetallic compounds 1949
38.3.2 Focus of the section 1949
38.3.3 The nature of ordered intermetallics 1949
38.3.4 The effect of ordering on the properties of intermetallics 1952
38.3.5 Overview of aluminide intermetallics 1954
38.3.6 Nickel aluminides 1954
NiAl 1958
38.3.7 Titanium aluminides 1961
Ti[sub(3)Al 1961
TiAl alloys 1961
38.3.8 Dispersion strengthened intermetallics and intermetallic matrix composites (IMCs) 1963
38.3.9 Processing and fabrication of structural intermetallics 1963
38.3.10 Current and potential applications of intermetallics 1964
38.4 Metallic foams 1965
38.5 Metallic glasses 1967
38.5.1 Metallic glasses requiring rapid quenching 1968
38.5.2 Bulk metallic glasses 1969
38.6 Mechanical behaviour of micro and nanoscale materials 1970
38.6.1 Mechanics of scale 1970
38.6.2 Thin films 1972
38.6.3 Nanomaterials 1973
38.6.4 Nanostructures 1975
References 1976
39 Modelling and simulation 1986
39.1 Introduction 1986
39.2 Electron theory 1986
39.3 Thermodynamics and equilibrium phase diagrams 1988
39.4 Thermodynamics of irreversible processes 1989
39.5 Kinetics 1990
39.6 Monte Carlo simulations 1991
39.7 Phase field method 1992
39.8 Finite difference method 1994
39.9 Finite element method 1994
39.10 Empirical modelling: neural networks 1995
References 1996
40 Supporting technologies for the processing of metals and alloys 1998
40.1 Introduction and cross-references 1998
40.2 Furnace design 1998
40.2.1 Introduction 1998
Electrical heating 1999
Gas heating 1999
40.2.2 Types of furnaces 1999
40.2.2.1 Box furnaces 1999
Direct heating 2000
Indirect heating 2000
40.2.2.2 Integral quench furnaces 2000
40.2.2.3 Pit furnaces 2000
40.2.2.4 Horizontal car bottom furnaces 2001
40.2.2.5 Continuous furnaces 2001
40.2.3 Heat calculations 2002
40.2.4 Refractory design 2003
Refractory bricks versus ceramic fibre blankets 2003
Modules 2003
Preforms 2003
Mortar 2003
Dryout 2004
40.2.5 Vacuum furnaces (see also section 40.3 on vacuum technology) 2004
Real leak 2005
Apparent leak 2005
40.2.6 Cooling 2005
40.3 Vacuum technology 2005
40.3.1 Introduction 2005
40.3.2 Pressure units and vacuum regions 2006
40.3.3 Pressure measurement 2006
40.3.3.1 Direct measurement gauges 2007
40.3.3.2 Gas bulk property gauges 2007
40.3.3.3 Molecular counting techniques 2008
40.3.3.4 Control and measurement units 2008
40.3.3.5 Can gauge readings be believed? 2008
40.3.4 Pumping technologies 2009
40.3.4.1 Low and medium vacuum pumps 2009
40.3.4.2 Medium and high vacuum pumps 2009
40.3.4.3 Ultra high vacuum pumps 2010
40.3.4.4 Control units and power supplies 2011
40.3.5 Vacuum systems 2011
40.3.6 Residual gas analysis 2012
40.3.7 Safety 2013
40.3.8 Selective bibliography 2013
40.4 Metallurgical process control 2013
40.4.1 Metals production and processing 2013
40.4.2 Modelling and control of metallurgical processes 2014
40.4.3 Process control techniques 2017
40.4.4 Instrumentation for process control 2018
40.4.5 Process control examples in metals production 2021
40.4.6 Keywords in process control 2024
Bibliography 2024
General review articles 2024
On blast furnace ironmaking 2024
On steelmaking 2024
On rolling mill and reheating furnaces 2025
On aluminium production 2025
Non-ferrous, ferro-alloy production and recycling systems 2025
Sensors 2025
Other information source on process control 2026
41 Bibliography of some sources of metallurgical information 2028
Index 2046
A 2046
B 2047
C 2048
D 2051
E 2052
F 2053
G 2054
H 2054
I 2056
J 2057
K 2058
L 2058
M 2058
N 2062
O 2062
P 2063
Q 2065
R 2065
S 2066
T 2068
U 2071
V 2071
W 2072
X 2072
Y 2072
Z 2072