Oxygen in Silicon (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Chapter 1. Introduction to Oxygen in Silicon 18
Chapter 2. The Incorporation of Oxygen into Silicon Crystals 26
I . Introduction 26
II. Silicon Crystal Growth 27
III. Characteristics of Czochralski Silicon Growth 32
IV. Oxygen Incorporation and Segregation in Czochralski Silicon Growth 41
V. Controlled Oxygen Silicon Growth 54
VI. Summary 67
References 67
Chapter 3. Characterization Techniques for Oxygen in Silicon 70
I. Introduction 70
II. Physical Techniques 72
Ill. Chemical Techniques 86
IV. Electrical Techniques 94
V. Summary 102
References 103
Chapter 4. Oxygen Concentration Measurement 112
I. Introduction 112
II. Infrared Absorption Measurements Under Ideal Conditions 116
III. Infrared Spectrometers 119
IV. Analysis of Oxygen Spectra 130
V. Absolute Determinations and Calibration Factors 153
VI. Standards and Reference Materials 161
VII. Summary 164
Acknowledgments 164
References 165
Chapter 5. Intrinsic Point Defects in Silicon 170
I. Introduction 170
II. Swirl Defect Manifestation of Intrinsic Point Defects 173
III. Thermal Defects in Silicon 176
IV. Self-Diffusion 177
V. Coexistence of Vacancies and Self-Interstitials in Silicon 181
VI. Interstitial Configuration and Charge-Enhanced Migration 183
VII. Formation and Migration Parameters of Point Defects 189
VIII. Defect Energetics and Pathways from Theoretical Calculations 196
IX. Summary 201
References 202
Chapter 6. Some Atomic Configurations of Oxygen 208
I. Introduction 208
II. Spectroscopy of Localized Modes in Semiconductors 211
III. Interstitial Oxygen 217
IV. Quasi-Substitutional Oxygen 234
V. Comparison with Other Light Element Impurities 241
VI. Oxygen in Other Semiconductors 250
VII. Summary 260
Acknowledgments 261
References 262
Chapter 7. Electrical Properties of Oxygen in Silicon 268
I. Introduction 268
II. Thermal Donors 268
III. New Donors 299
References 301
Chapter 8. Diffusion of Oxygen in Silicon 306
I. Introduction 307
II. Direct Measurements of Normal Oxygen Diffusion 309
III. Indirect Measurements of Normal Oxygen Diffusion 315
IV. Enhanced Oxygen Diffusion Not Involving Hydrogen 325
V. Silicon Containing Hydrogen Impurities 335
VI. Theoretical Modeling of Oxygen Diffusion 343
VII. Constraints on Models of Thermal Donor Centers 359
VIII. Summary 362
Acknowledgments 364
References 364
Chapter 9. Mechanisms of Oxygen Precipitation: Some Quantitative Aspects 370
I. Introduction 370
II. Volume Shortage Associated with Oxygen Precipitation 374
III. Precipitate Nucleation 375
IV. Precipitate Growth 384
V. The Effect of Carbon 392
VI. Defect Generation 396
VII. Summary: The Free Energy and Flux Balance Treatment of the Oxygen Precipitation Problem 403
References 404
Chapter 10. Simulation of Oxygen Precipitation 408
I. Introduction 408
II. Model Types 410
III. Models and Experimental Results 430
V. On the Interactions of Oxygen with Other Defects 452
VI. Summary 460
References 461
Chapter 11. Oxygen Effect on Mechanical Properties 466
I. Introduction 467
II. Plastic Deformation and Dislocations in Silicon Crystals 468
III. Influence of Dispersed Oxygen Atoms on the Mobility of Dislocations in Silicon 471
IV. Immobilization of Dislocations by Oxygen 480
V. Effect of Oxygen on Dislocation Generation 486
VI. Mechanical Properties of Silicon as Influenced by Oxygen Impurities 491
VII. Influence of Oxygen Precipitation on Mechanical Strength 507
VIII. Effects of Nitrogen and Carbon Impurities on Mechanical Properties of Silicon 516
IX. Summary 524
References 527
Chapter 12. Grown-in and Process-Induced Effects 530
I. Introduction 530
II. Oxygen Precipitation During High-Temperature Processes 532
III. Grown-in Defects: Precipitation and Intrinsic Defect Aggregation During Crystal Growth 568
IV. Summary 588
References 589
Chapter 13. Intrinsic/Internal Gettering 594
I. lntroduction 594
II. Surface and Interior Microdefects 596
III. Gettering 610
IV. Oxygen Behavior in Silicon 616
V. Internal Gettering Process and Mechanism 627
VI. Summary 631
References 632
Chapter 14. Oxygen Effect on Electronic Device Performance 636
I. Introduction 636
II . Device Characteristics and Crystal Defects 638
III. Defect Generation 642
IV. Improvement of Device Yield 652
V. Summary 680
Acknowledgments 680
References 681
Index 686