Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics 4
Copyright Page 5
The Editors 6
Alphabetical List of Articles 8
Subject Classification 14
Introduction 18
Contributors 20
A 24
A Priori Knowledge: Linguistic Aspects 24
Bibliography 26
Action Sentences and Adverbs 26
Action Sentences 26
Adverbs 27
Bibliography 28
Analytic Philosophy 29
Frege’s Analysis of Number Statements 29
Russell’s Theory of Descriptions 30
Moore’s Conception of Analysis 30
Wittgenstein’s Tractatus 30
Logical and Metaphysical Analysis 31
Ordinary Language Philosophy 31
Logical Positivism and the Quinean Tradition 31
Analytic Philosophy Today 32
Bibliography 32
Analytic/Synthetic, Necessary/Contingent, and a Priori/a Posteriori: Distinction 33
Necessary/Contingent Distinction 33
The a Priori/a Posteriori Distinction 34
Kripke on the Necessary a Posteriori and the Contingent a Priori 35
The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction 36
Metaphysical Analyticity 36
Quine’s Belief-Revisability Argument 37
Frege-Analyticity 37
Quine’s Objections to Frege-Analyticity of the Second Kind 38
Epistemological Analyticity 40
Bibliography 41
Anaphora: Philosophical Aspects 42
Bibliography 44
Architecture of Grammar 44
The Competence-Performance Divide 45
Grammars: Formal-Language Theory vs. Psychology 45
The Formal-Language Pattern 45
The Language Faculty as a Subpart of Central Cognitive Systems 46
Combining Formal Language and Psychological Traditions 46
Issues of Grammar Design 47
The Status of the Lexicon 47
The Syntax-Semantics Debate and the Grammar-Parser Relation 47
Summary 48
Bibliography 48
Aristotle and Linguistics 48
Bibliography 50
Assertion 51
Bibliography 53
B 54
Behaviorism: Varieties 54
Psychological Behaviorism 54
Rejection of Introspection as an Experimental Method 54
Shunning of Internal Events 54
Emphasis on Learning 55
Philosophical Behaviorism 56
Reductive Philosophical Behaviorism 56
Nonreductive Philosophical Behaviorism 57
Eliminative Philosophical Behaviorism 57
The Return of Psychological Behaviorism? 58
Bibliography 58
Further Reading 58
Boole and Algebraic Semantics 59
Bibliography 61
C 64
Causal Theories of Reference and Meaning 64
Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories 64
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 64
The Causal Theory of Meaning 65
Problems and Prospects 66
Bibliography 66
Character versus Content 67
Content/Character Distinction and Semantics 67
Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy 68
Bibliography 69
Cognitive Science and Philosophy of Language 70
The Ideal Language Tradition 70
Example: Proper Names 70
Russell’s Theory of Descriptions 71
Limitations of the Ideal Language Approach 71
The Ordinary Language Tradition 72
Example: Ryle on Free Will 72
Limitations of the Ordinary Language Approach 73
The Cognitivist Tradition 74
Computational and Representational Theories of Mind 74
The Rejection of Linguistic Behaviorism 75
The Open Evidence Base 75
Meanings as Mental States 76
The Limitations of Cognitive Science 76
The New Philosophy of Language 76
Two More Theories of Proper Names 77
Empirical Evidence 77
Final Words 78
Bibliography 79
Communication: Semiotic Approaches 80
The Rise of a Controversy 80
Saussurean 'Signification' as Keyword and Sign of Contradiction 81
The Functionalist Reading 82
Some Code-model Approaches 85
Charles Sanders Peirce 85
Conclusive Remarks 86
Bibliography 86
Communication, Understanding, and Interpretation: Philosophical Aspects 87
The Nature of Communication 87
Interpretation and Understanding 89
Bibliography 90
Comparatives: Semantics 91
Introduction 91
Gradability 92
Comparison 92
Comparison Cross-Linguistically 93
Bibliography 94
Compositionality: Philosophical Aspects 94
Considerations Against Semantic Compositionality 97
Formal Considerations 97
History 97
Bibliography 98
Compositionality: Semantic Aspects 98
Bibliography 100
Concepts 101
The Classical Theory 101
Probabilistic Theories 102
The Theory-Theory 102
Conceptual Atomism 103
Bibliography 103
Conditionals 104
Form and Meaning 104
Truth-Conditional Semantics 105
Material Conditional 105
(Variably) Strict Implication 105
Relative Likelihood 106
Probability 106
Summary 107
Bibliography 107
Context and Common Ground 108
History 108
Bases for Common Ground 108
Communal Common Ground 108
Personal Common Ground 109
Language and Communal Common Ground 109
Discourse and Personal Common Ground 110
Bibilography 110
Context Principle 111
Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle 111
Motivating the Context Principle 112
A Possible Objection to the Context Principle 114
Bibliography 116
Contextualism in Epistemology 117
Bibliography 119
Conventions in Language 119
Convention and Analyticity 119
Grice 120
Lewis 120
Lewis’s General Notion of Convention 120
Conventions of Language 121
A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis 121
Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention 122
Convention versus Inference 122
Bibliography 122
Cooperative Principle 123
The Principle Itself 123
What Counts as Cooperation? 123
The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse 123
Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature 124
Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle 125
Problems with the Term 'Cooperation' 125
Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims 126
Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle 126
Grammar 127
Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 127
Politeness Theory 127
Question Processing 128
Gender Studies 128
Teacher Research and Pedagogy 128
Conclusion 129
Bibliography 129
Coreference: Identity and Similarity 130
Defining Coreference 130
Identity 130
Similarity 130
Bound-Variable Anaphora 130
E-Type Anaphora 131
Anaphora of Laziness 131
Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora 131
Bibliography 132
Counterfactuals 132
Metalinguistic Approaches 133
Possible Worlds Approach 134
Some Issues 134
Bibliography 135
Creativity in Language 135
Coining Words 135
Children Coin Words, Too 136
Language Revival 136
Syntactic Units and Combinations 137
Extending Language in New Directions 137
Bibliography 138
D 140
Data and Evidence 140
Sources of Data 140
Corpora 140
Grammaticality Judgments 141
Fieldwork 142
Experiments 142
Kinds of Data 143
Language Acquisition and Creolization 143
Second Language 143
Bilingualism 143
Language Disorders 144
Performance Errors 144
Typology and Historical Change 144
General Remarks 144
Variability 144
Data, Evidence, and Theory 145
Bibliography 146
De Dicto versus De Re 147
Bibliography 150
Default Semantics 151
Bibliography 154
Definite and Indefinite 154
What Does 'Definite' Mean? 154
Uniqueness? 154
Familiarity? 155
Some Puzzling Cases 156
Grammatical Phenomena 157
Existential Sentences 157
The Have Construction 157
Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs 157
Other Kinds of Definite NPs 157
Bare NPs 158
Other Types of Indefinite NPs 158
Other Kinds of Categorizations 159
Old and New 159
The Givenness Hierarchy 159
The Accessibility Hierarchy 159
Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages 159
Bibliography 160
Definitions: Uses and Varieties of 161
Uses 161
Varieties 162
Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition 162
Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions 163
Uses Again 163
Bibliography 164
Deflationism 164
Bibliography 166
Deixis and Anaphora: Pragmatic Approaches 167
Bibliography 169
Description and Prescription 169
Bibliography 174
Relevant Website 174
Descriptions, Definite and Indefinite: Philosophical Aspects 174
Russell’s Theories of Description 175
Russell’s Early Theory of Denoting 175
Russell’s Mature Theory 175
Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica 175
Descriptions and Scope 176
Responses to Russell’s Theory of Definite Descriptions 176
Strawson’s Critique of Russell 176
The Ambiguity Thesis 177
Responses to Russell’s Theory of Indefinite Descriptions 178
Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions 178
An Alternative Nonreferential Account 178
Bibliography 179
Direct Reference 180
What Is Direct Reference? 180
Some Closely Related Concepts 181
Problems with Direct Reference 182
Bibliography 183
Discourse Representation Theory 183
The Problem of Unbound Anaphora 183
Basic Ideas 184
Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs) 186
Extensions: Tense and Plurals 187
Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers 187
Discourse Structures and Partial Models 188
Reasoning with DRSs 189
Definition 1 (DRT) 189
Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT) 189
Definition 3 (DRT Consequence) 189
Theorem 4 190
Proof 190
Theorem 5 190
The Treatment of Ambiguities 191
Bibliography 191
Donkey Sentences 192
Bibliography 194
Dthat 194
Bibliography 195
Dynamic Semantics 195
Information and Information Change 195
Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics 196
Dynamic Predicate Logic 197
Update Semantics 198
Presuppositions 199
Further Reading 199
Bibliography 199
E 202
E-Language versus I-Language 202
E-Language/I-Language Distinction 202
Some Preliminary Characterizations 202
Getting at What’s Fundamental 203
Individualism and Antiindividualism 204
Semantic Intuitions in Linguistics and General Epistemology 204
Bibliography 205
Empiricism 206
Species of Empiricism 206
Empiricism and Language 207
Bibliography 208
Empty Names 208
The Problem of Negative Existentials 209
Millianism 209
Fregeanism 210
More Millianism: The Gappy Proposition View 210
Still More Millianism: The Communicated Proposition View 211
Bibliography 211
Epistemology and Language 212
Bibliography 214
Essential Indexical 214
Bibliography 215
Event-Based Semantics 215
Bibliography 218
Evolution of Semantics 219
Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge 219
The Importance of Motor Evolution 220
The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills 220
The Importance of Personality Types 221
The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge 222
Concept Formation 222
The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis 223
Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination 224
Polysemy 225
Abstract Concepts 225
Cultural Evolution 226
Bibliography 226
Evolution of Syntax 227
Language 227
Evolution of Language 228
Syntax 229
Evolution of Syntax 229
Is Syntax Adaptive? 230
Exaptation 230
Biological or Nonbiological Evolution 230
The 'Big Picture' and Details of Syntax 230
Effects of Particular Developments Within Theories of Syntax 231
When Did Syntax Emerge? 231
How Many Stages? 231
A Series of Stages 231
Conclusion 233
Bibliography 233
Existence 234
What Existence Is 234
The Hume-Kant View 235
The Frege-Russell View 235
The Meinong-Russell View 236
Bibliography 237
Expression Meaning versus Utterance/Speaker Meaning 237
Bibliography 239
Expressive Power of Language 240
Bibliography 242
Extensionality and Intensionality 242
Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality 243
Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings 244
Bibliography 245
Externalism about Content 245
The Thesis of Externalism 245
Arguments for and against Externalism 245
Natural Kind Terms 245
Indexicals 246
Burge and Linguistic Practice 246
Accounts of Content 247
Externalism’s Consequences 247
Bibliography 247
F 250
Fictional Discourse: Philosophical Aspects 250
The Nature of Fictional Discourse 250
Truth in a Fiction 250
Semantics of Fictional Discourse 251
Responding to Fictions 252
Bibliography 252
Figurative Language: Semiotics 253
Introduction 253
Theories of Metaphor 254
Selected Review of Theories of Metaphor 254
Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) 254
Giambattista Vico (1668-1744) 255
I. A. Richards (1893-1979) 256
Max Black (1909-1988) 257
Groupe µ 257
Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005) 258
George Lakoff (b. 1941) and Mark Johnson (b. 1949) 258
Conceptual Metaphor 258
Metonymy 259
Synecdoche 259
The Image-Schema 259
Ronald W. Langacker (b. 1942) 260
Literal Versus Figurative Language 260
Semiosis and the Signifying Order 261
The Uses of Metaphor 262
Theory-Constitutive Metaphors 263
Linguistics 263
Physics 264
Anatomy 264
Second Language Pedagogy 264
Concluding Remarks 264
Bibliography 265
Formal Semantics 266
Introduction 266
Semantics vs. Lexicography 266
The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems 267
Truth and Semantic Competence 269
Semantic Modeling 272
The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface 277
Conclusions 280
Bibliography 281
Formalism/Formalist Linguistics 281
General Characterization 281
The Research Program of Chomskyan Linguistics 282
Other Mentalist Approaches 284
Purely Formalist Approaches 285
Aspects of Language Use 286
References 287
Frame Problem 288
Origins of the Problem 288
Frame Axioms Result in Computational Overload 288
The Sleeping Dog Strategy and Nonmonotonic Logics 289
The Yale Shooting Problem 289
Holism Presents a Problem for the Sleeping Dog Strategy 289
Concluding Remarks 290
Bibliography 290
Functionalist Theories of Language 291
Functionalism within the Gamut of Linguistic Theories 291
The Basic Tenets of Functionalism 291
Further Features 292
Inclusive Rather Than Core Grammars 292
The Use of Authentic Textual Data 292
Flexibility of Meaning and Structure 293
A Discourse Grammar, Not Just a Sentence Grammar 293
Typological Orientation 293
A Constructivist Account of Acquisition 293
Important Functional Theories 293
Functional Grammar 293
Role and Reference Grammar 294
Systemic Functional Grammar 295
West Coast Functionalism 296
Usage-Based Functionalist-Cognitive Models 297
Conclusions 297
Bibliography 298
Future Tense and Future Time Reference 299
Bibliography 300
G 302
Game-Theoretical Semantics 302
Bibliography 304
Generative Grammar 305
Bibliography 307
Generative Semantics 307
Foreword (by Randy Harris) 307
Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley) 307
GS Positions on Controversial Issues 308
GS Policies on the Conduct of Research 309
Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach 310
The History of GS 310
Bibliography 311
Generic Reference 312
Forms of Generic Reference 312
Theory of Generic Reference 314
Bibliography 315
Grammatical Meaning 316
Bibliography 317
H 318
Holism, Semantic and Epistemic 318
Epistemic Holism 318
Semantic Holism 318
The Argument from Compositionality and the Context Principle 318
Problems with Semantic Holism 319
Learning Problem 319
Instability Problem 320
Disagreement Problem 320
Semantic Holism and the Philosophy of Mind 320
Conclusion 320
Bibliography 320
I 322
Ideational Theories of Meaning 322
Bibliography 324
Identity and Sameness: Philosophical Aspects 325
Introduction 325
The Logic of Identity 325
Relative and Absolute Identity 325
Criteria of Identity 326
Identity over Time 326
Contingent Identity 327
Vague Identity 327
Bibliography 327
Immunity to Error through Misidentification 328
IEM 328
IEM 'I'-Utterances 328
Bibliography 331
Implicature 331
The Basic Notions 331
Beyond Grice 333
Presumptive Meanings: Levinson’s Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature 333
Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn’s Q- and R-Principles 337
Relevance Theory: Carston’s Underdeterminacy Thesis 338
Quality Reconsidered 340
Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface 341
Conclusions 342
Bibliography 343
Indeterminacy, Semantic 345
The Argument from Below 345
Reactions to the Argument from Below 346
The Argument from Above 346
Reactions to the Argument from Above 346
Bibliography 347
Indexicality: Philosophical Aspects 347
Bibliography 350
Innate Ideas 350
What Is Innateness? 351
Which Concepts are Innate? 351
Bibliography 353
Innate Knowledge 353
Bibliography 356
Intention and Semantics 356
Bibliography 359
Interpreted Logical Forms 359
Propositional Attitude Reports 359
What Are ILFs? 360
Puzzles and Problems 360
The Simple Name Puzzle 360
The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle 360
The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle 361
The Hard Name Puzzle 361
Prospects 362
Bibliography 363
Irony 364
Bibliography 365
L 368
Language as an Object of Study 368
Language as a Social Fact 368
Language as Behavior 369
Language as a Mental Organ 369
Language as an Abstract Object 370
Bibliography 371
Lexical Conceptual Structure 372
Introduction 372
Overview of Conceptual Semantics 373
Autonomy of Semantics 373
Lexical Conceptual Structure 374
Ontological Categories 375
Conceptual Formation Rules 375
X-bar Semantics 376
General Constraints on Semantic Theories 377
Comparison with Other Works 378
Suggested Readings 379
Bibliography 379
Lexical Semantics: Overview 380
Word Knowledge 380
Historical Overview 380
Ambiguity and Polysemy 381
Lexical Relations 382
The Semantics of a Lexical Entry 382
Lexical Semantic Classifications 383
Argument Structure 383
Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition 384
Qualia Structure 385
Bibliography 386
Limits of Language 388
Bibliography 390
Linguistic Reality 391
Why Those Objects? 391
What Are They? 391
Types and Tokens 391
What Are Word Types? 392
Realism 392
Conceptualism 393
Nominalism 393
Bibliography 394
Linguistics as a Science 394
What Is a Science? 394
The Scientific Study of Language 396
Bibliography 400
Linguistics: Approaches 401
Introduction 401
The Status of Linguistic Form 401
Rationalist and Empiricist Approaches and the Status of Data 402
The Production of Form 404
The 'Landscape' of Language and its Division into Fields of Linguistic Inquiry 405
Bibliography 406
Linguistics: Discipline of 406
Introduction 406
The Meaning of 'Language' 406
Knowledge of Language 407
Describing Knowledge of Language 411
Explanation in Language 413
Linguistics as a 'Science' 416
Beyond Language: Pragmatics and the Language of Thought 419
Bibliography 420
Logic and Language: Philosophical Aspects 421
Introduction 421
The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole 421
Logic and Language in Frege 423
Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism 424
Wittgenstein on Logic and Language 426
Carnap and the Vienna Circle 427
Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism 428
Bibliography 429
Logical Consequence 430
Fundamentals 430
The Formal Study of Logical Consequence 430
General Philosophical Concerns 432
Bibliography 433
Logical Form in Linguistics 433
Bibliography 436
Lying, Honesty, and Promising 436
Informational Theories 436
Noninformational Theories 437
Bibliography 438
M 440
Mass Nouns, Count Nouns, and Non-count Nouns: Philosophical Aspects 440
Plural Count Nouns and Non-count Nouns 440
The Concept 'Mass Noun' and Its Supposed Criterion 440
An Illusory Criterion 441
The Non-metaphysical Goods 442
Bibliography 443
Maxims and Flouting 444
The Cooperative Principle 444
The Maxims 444
Quantity 444
Quality 444
Relation 444
Manner 444
What Is a Maxim? 445
Flouting: Past, Present, and Future 446
Conclusion 446
Bibliography 446
Meaning: Cognitive Dependency of Lexical Meaning 447
Bibliography 449
Meaning: Development 449
Conventionality and Contrast 450
In Conversation 450
Making Inferences 451
Pragmatics and Meaning 452
Another Approach 453
Sources of Meanings 454
Summary 454
Bibliography 455
Meaning: Overview of Philosophical Theories 456
The Direct Reference Theory 456
Meaning as Truth Conditions 457
Sense and Reference 458
The Idea Theory 459
Meaning as Use 459
Quine’s Skepticism 460
Bibliography 461
Meaning: Procedural and Conceptual 461
Relevance Theoretic Semantics 462
Why Languages Develop Procedural Encoding 462
The Conceptual-Procedural Distinction and Conventional Implicature 463
Procedural Analyses of Discourse Markers 464
Future Directions 464
Bibliography 464
Mentalese 465
The Basic Hypothesis 465
What Is Mentalese Like? 465
The Thinker’s Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code? 465
Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics 466
Further Arguments for LOT 466
Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT 466
LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought 467
Bibliography 467
Metalanguage versus Object Language 467
Bibliography 468
Metaphor: Philosophical Theories 468
Metaphor and Philosophy 468
Defining Metaphor 468
Delineating Metaphor 469
The Metaphorical and the Literal 469
Deviance and Value 469
Deviance: Semantic or Pragmatic? 469
Theories of Metaphor 470
Conditions of Adequacy 470
Aristotle 470
Interaction Theories of Metaphor 471
Davidson and Metaphorical Meaning 471
Bibliography 471
Metaphor: Psychological Aspects 472
The Ubiquity of Metaphor in Language 472
Metaphor Understanding: The Standard View 473
Psychological Tests of the Standard View 473
Psychological Models of Metaphor Understanding 475
Metaphor in Thought 476
Psychological Studies on Conceptual Metaphor 477
Bibliography 478
Metaphysics, Substitution Salva Veritate and the Slingshot Argument 479
Metaphysics and Language: Facts, Propositions and 'MCT Operators' 479
Substitution Salva Veritate 480
The Argument: The Slingshot Itself 483
Aiming the Slingshot at Facts, and Factlike Things 485
Responses to the Slingshot Argument 486
Bibliography 488
Modal Logic 488
Bibliography 494
Modern Linguistics: 1800 to the Present Day 495
Introduction 495
Comparative Philology 496
The Neogrammarians 496
Saussurean Structuralism 497
Linguistic Geography 498
Linguistic Anthropology 498
Linguistic Relativity 499
Behaviorism 499
Distributionalism 500
Generativism 500
Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics 501
Speech-Act Theory 501
Language Origins and Nonhuman Language 501
Retrospect 502
Bibliography 502
Modularity 503
Bibliography 504
Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers 505
Bibliography 508
Montague Semantics 508
Historical Background 508
Aims 509
The Compositional Approach 510
Interpretation in a Model 512
Extension and Intension 512
A Small Fragment 513
Some PTQ Phenomena 515
Developments 517
Further Reading 518
Bibliography 518
Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force 519
Bibliography 523
N 524
Natural Kind Terms 524
What Are Natural Kind Terms? 524
The Semantics of Natural Kind Terms: Descriptivism 525
Against Descriptivism 525
Causal Theories 526
Descriptivism Redux 526
Hybrid Views 527
Bibliography 527
Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning 528
Grice’s Distinction 528
Grice’s Theory of Non-natural Meaning 529
Other Remarks 529
Bibliography 529
Naturalism 530
Bibliography 532
Negation: Philosophical Aspects 533
Possible Properties of Negation 533
Negations, Consistency, and Paradoxes 534
More Than One Negation? 535
Negation and Denial 535
Bibliography 536
Negation: Semantic Aspects 536
Classical and Nonclassical Negation 536
Negation and Polarity 538
Negation Versus Denial 539
Metalinguistic Negation 540
Bibliography 542
Nominalism 543
Extreme Realism: Plato’s Ideal Exemplars 543
Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle’s Universals 543
The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians 544
Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism 544
The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism 544
Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism 545
Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism 546
Bibliography 546
Nonmonotonic Inference 547
Bibliography 549
Nonstandard Language Use 550
Bibliography 553
Normativity 553
Prescriptive Versus Descriptive Linguistics 554
Semantics and Normativity 554
Pragmatics and Normativity 555
Linguistic Properties of Normative Terms 555
Bibliography 556
O 558
Object-Dependent Thoughts 558
Singular Thoughts as Object Dependent 558
Epistemological Consequences of Object-Dependence 558
The Central Motivation for Object Dependence 559
Criticisms and Rivals 560
Bibliography 561
Objectivity in Moral Discourse 562
Ontological Objectivity 563
Ontological Objectivity and Moral Discourse 563
Grammatical and Semantic Markers 563
Ontological Markers 563
Epistemological Marker 564
Moral Realism 564
Denying Ontological Objectivity in Moral Discourse 565
Methodological Objectivism 566
Conclusion 567
Bibliography 567
Objects, Properties, and Functions 568
Bibliography 570
Ordinary Language Philosophy 571
Language and Philosophy 571
Ordinary Language Philosophy 571
The Oxford Version: Austin 571
Some Questions about Austin’s Approach 572
The Cambridge Version: Wittgenstein 572
Some Questions About Wittgenstein’s Approach 573
Conclusion 574
Bibliography 574
Origin of Language Debate 574
Preliminaries 574
Discussions on the Origin of Language in Classical Antiquity 575
Discussions on the Origin of Language in the Enlightenment 575
The Origin of Language Topic in the 19th and 20th Centuries 578
Bibliography 578
P 580
Paradoxes, Semantic 580
The Paradoxes 580
Suggested Solutions to the Liar 581
Bibliography 582
Philosophy of Linguistics 583
Bibliography 588
Philosophy of Science and Linguistics 589
Bibliography 591
Plato and His Predecessors 592
Predecessors 592
Plato 593
Bibliography 594
Plato's Cratylus and Its Legacy 594
Bibliography 597
Plurality 597
Bibliography 599
Polysemy and Homonymy 600
Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes 601
Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy 601
Bibliography 602
Possible Worlds: Philosophical Theories 603
Bibliography 605
Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said 605
Bibliography 608
Predication 608
Bibliography 611
Presupposition 612
Introduction 612
Operational Criteria 612
The Logical Problem 614
The Threat to Bivalence 614
The Russell Tradition 614
The Frege-Strawson Tradition 615
The Trivalent Solution 616
The Discourse Approach 616
The Structural Source of Presuppositions 618
Bibliography 618
Principles and Parameters Framework of Generative Grammar 619
Mechanisms for Phrase Structure Representations 620
Constraints on Derivations and Representations 621
Full Interpretation 622
Locality of Movement 623
Binding Theory 625
Bound Anaphors 625
Pronouns 626
Conclusion 626
Bibliography 627
Private Language Argument 628
The Argument’s Target 628
Supplementary Strands 629
Rules and Communities 629
Radical Evidence-Independence and the 'Theory Response' 630
Bibliography 631
Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects 632
What Are Proper Names? 632
Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference 632
Theories of Meaning 632
Millian Theories 632
Description Theories 632
Theories of Reference 633
Description Theories 633
Causal Theories 634
Hybrid Theories 635
Other Expressions 635
Definite Descriptions 635
Natural Kind Terms 635
Bibliography 635
Propositional Attitude Ascription: Philosophical Aspects 636
Bibliography 639
Propositions 640
Roles Played by Propositions 640
Propositions as Abstract Entities 641
Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities 641
Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean 642
Ontology or Semantics? 642
A Problem for the Structureless Approach 642
Problems for the Structured Approaches 643
Bibliography 644
Q 646
Quantifiers: Semantics 646
Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations 646
Some Non-Standard Quantifiers 649
Bibliography 651
R 654
Radical Interpretation, Translation and Interpretationalism 654
Radical Translation 654
Radical Interpretation 654
Interpretationalism 656
Criticisms of Radical Interpretation and Interpretationalism 656
Bibliography 657
Realism and Antirealism 657
Bibliography 660
Reference: Philosophical Theories 660
What Is Reference? 660
Descriptivism 661
Descriptivist Theories of Reference 661
Frege’s and Russell’s Versions of Descriptivism 661
Differences Between Descriptivist Views 662
Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 663
Problems With Descriptivism 663
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 664
Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory 664
Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference 665
Summary 666
Bibliography 667
Referential versus Attributive 667
Donnellan’s Contrast 667
Donnellan’s Use of the Contrast against Russell 668
Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke) 669
Semantic Treatments (Wettstein) 670
Developments 670
Bibliography 671
Relevance Theory 671
Basic Claims 672
Code versus Inference 672
A Post-Gricean Theory 672
Two Principles of Relevance 673
Assessing Relevance: Cognitive Effects versus Processing Effort 673
Current Issues and Open Debates 674
The Explicit/Implicit Distinction 674
Conceptual and Procedural Encoding 674
Ad hoc Concept Formation 675
Mutual Knowledge versus Mutual Manifestness 675
Communicated and Noncommunicated Acts 675
Irony and the Notion of Echo 675
Modularity 676
Relevance Theory as Asocial 676
Empirical Evidence 676
Applications 677
Concluding Remarks 678
Bibliography 678
Representation in Language and Mind 679
The Relationship between Language and Thought 679
Mental Representation as Basic 679
Information-Based Theories 679
Teleological Theories 680
Conceptual Role Theories 680
Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation 680
Linguistic Representation as Basic 681
Norms-Based Theories 681
A Non-Reductive Proposal 681
Bibliography 681
Rigid Designation 682
Introduction 682
Names and Rigidity 682
Types of Rigidity 683
Bibliography 683
Rules and Rule-Following 684
Rule-Following and Meaning 684
Constitutive and Epistemological Skepticism 684
KW’s Skeptical Argument 684
KW’s Skeptical Solution 685
Significance of the Issue 686
Responses to the Skeptical Paradox and Skeptical Solution 686
Bibliography 686
S 688
Saussure: Theory of the Sign 688
Bibliography 699
Scope and Binding: Semantic Aspects 700
Bibliography 702
Semantic Value 703
Bibliography 707
Semantics of Interrogatives 708
Metasemantics 708
Semantics 709
Bibliography 710
Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 711
The Philosophical Debate 711
The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 716
Bibliography 718
Sense and Reference: Philosophical Aspects 719
The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction 719
More on Frege’s Distinction 720
Subsequent History, and Criticisms 720
Bibliography 721
Situation Semantics 722
Guide to Literature 723
Bibliography 724
Social Construction and Language 725
Nonanalytic Approaches 725
Analytic Approaches 725
Early Analytic Approaches and Social Construction 725
John Searle’s Approach 726
Social Construction 726
The Role of Language 727
Critical Assessment 727
Bibliography 728
Speech Acts 728
J. L. Austin 728
The Performative/Constative Dichotomy 728
Austin’s Felicity Conditions on Performatives 729
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts 730
J. R. Searle 731
Searle’s Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts 731
Searle’s Typology of Speech Acts 732
Indirect Speech Acts 732
Speech Acts and Culture 734
Cross-Cultural Variation 734
Interlanguage Variation 736
Bibliography 736
Syncategoremata 737
The History of the Distinction 737
Syntactic and Semantic Criteria of Drawing the Distinction 738
Philosophical Significance of the Distinction 739
Bibliography 740
Syntax-Semantics Interface 741
The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages 741
Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect 742
Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch 743
The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis 743
The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis 746
The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis 747
Shaking Things Up 748
How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning? 748
Where Does the Meaning Come From? 749
Bibliography 750
Systematicity 751
Some Varieties of Systematicity 751
Explaining Systematicity 753
Bibliography 754
T 756
Tacit Knowledge 756
The Early Debate 756
Tacit Knowing vs. the Full Propositional Attitudes 756
Tacit Knowing vs. Knowing How 758
What Is Tacit Knowledge? 758
Bibliography 760
Temporal Logic 760
Tense Logic 760
Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic 760
Semantics of Tense Logic 761
Extensions of Tense Logic 762
Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since' and 'Until' 762
The Indeterminate Future 762
Interval Semantics 762
Other Forms of Temporal Logic 763
Bibliography 764
Tense and Time: Philosophical Aspects 764
Bibliography 766
Testimony 767
Testimony as a Belief Source 767
Testimony as a Knowledge Source 767
Skepticism 767
Perception and Understanding 768
Reductionism and Anti-reductionism 768
Summary 769
Bibliography 769
Thought and Language: Philosophical Aspects 770
The Relative Priority of Thought and Language 770
The Cartesian View 771
Behaviorism 772
Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought 772
A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language 774
Bibliography 775
Transformational Grammar: Evolution 775
Early Transformational Grammar 776
Harris on Transformations 776
Chomsky on Transformations 776
Subtypes of Transformations 778
Rule Ordering 779
Transformations and Mental Processes 780
The 'Standard Theory' 780
Rule Interaction: the Transformational Cycle 781
The Organization of the Grammar 782
Generative Semantics 783
The Extended Standard Theory 785
The Lexicalist Hypothesis 785
Interpretive Semantics 786
Constraints on Movement Rules 787
Structure Preservation 787
Blind Application of Transformations 788
Trace Theory 790
Bibliography 792
Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning 793
Bibliography 797
Truth: Primary Bearers 797
Introduction 797
The Case for the Sentence as the Primary Bearer of Truth-Value 798
Context and the Question of Truth Bearers 798
Ramifications of the Debate about Truth Bearers 799
The Scope of the Issue 799
Bibliography 800
Truth: Theories of in Philosophy 800
Traditional Theories 800
Deflationary Theories 801
Alternative Theories 803
Bibliography 803
20th-Century Linguistics: Overview of Trends 803
Introduction 803
20th-Century Linguistics vs. 19th-Century Linguistics: Continuities and Breakthroughs 804
Ferdinand de Saussure 805
Saussurean Trends in Europe 806
Geneva School 806
Prague School 806
Copenhagen School 807
Structural Linguistics in France: Benveniste, Martinet 807
Other European Scholars (Guillaume, Tesniegravere, London School) 807
American Linguistics from 1920s through 1960s 808
Sapir and His Heritage 808
Bloomfield 809
Post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism 809
Tagmemics and Stratificational Grammar 810
The Beginnings of Typological Linguistics 810
The Birth and Rise of Generative Grammar 810
The Origins of Generative Grammar 810
The Standard Theory 811
Generative Phonology 811
The Impact of Generative Grammar 812
Trends Stemming from Generative Grammar 813
Generative Semantics and Its Heritage 813
'One-Level' Approaches to Syntax 813
From EST to the 'Minimalist Program' 814
Trends Alternative to Generative Grammar 814
Functionalist Schools 814
Typological Linguistics 815
Sociolinguistics 815
Pragmatics 815
Bibliography 816
Two-Dimensional Semantics 817
Applications 818
Bibliography 820
Type versus Token 820
The Distinction 820
Its Usefulness 821
Universals 821
A Related Distinction 821
Do Types Exist? 822
Bibliography 822
U 824
Use Theories of Meaning 824
Bibliography 826
Use versus Mention 826
Bibliography 828
V 830
Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects 830
Hallmarks of Vagueness 830
Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness 830
Philosophical Theories of Vagueness 831
Bibliography 832
Verificationism 833
Introduction 833
The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction 833
Observation Statements 833
Strong Verification 834
Strong Verification and Strong Falsification 834
Weak Verification 834
The Influence of Verificationism 835
Bibliography 835
Subject Index 838