New Science of Learning (eBook)

Foreword 6
References 10
Contents 12
Contributors 16
About the Contributors 20
Part I Cognition and New Science of Learning 36
1 New Digital Media and Their Potential Cognitive Impact on Youth Learning 37
Introduction 37
Methods 38
Findings and Discussion 39
The Changing Youth Environment 40
Demographic Trends 40
The Rise in Extracurricular Commitments 40
NDM's Impact on Youth Learning 41
Changes in Student Attention 42
Changes in Information Preferences 44
Changes in Student Research Practices 46
Changes in the Student--Educator Relationship 49
Changes in the Student--Student Relationship 51
Conclusion 53
References 10
2 Group Cognition as a Foundation for the New Scienceof Learning 57
The Need for a New Science of Group Cognition 58
The Construct of Group Cognition 60
The Group Unit of Description 61
A Model of the New Science 63
The Nature of the New Science 65
Group Cognition in a Virtual Math Team (Research Question) 65
Non-laboratory Experimental Design (Validity) 66
Data Collection at the Group Level of Description (Unit of Analysis) 67
Instrumentation and Data Formats (Objectivity) 68
Collaborative Data Sessions (Reliability) 70
Describing Group Practices (Generalizability) 72
The Foundational Role of Group Cognition 73
References 75
3 An Embodied/Grounded Cognition Perspective on Educational Technology 79
Grounded/Embodied Cognition 79
Gaining Embodied/Grounded Experiences from Video Games 80
Learning from Graphical Computer Simulations with Movement and Animation 81
Creating Video Games to Embody Understanding 83
Conclusions 85
References 85
4 Features of Computerized Multimedia Environments that Support Vicarious Learning Processes 87
Environmental Features Supporting Vicarious Comprehension and Learning 88
Focus on Comprehension 88
Focus on Learning 93
Overt Activities Designed to Support Vicarious Learning Processes 100
Summary and Conclusions 105
References 107
5 Human Memory and the New Science of Learning 112
Introduction 112
Cognitive Perspectives on Learning 113
Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory 114
Learning and Development Depend on Learners' Experiences 114
Learners Are Mentally Active in Their Attempts to Make Sense of Their Experiences 114
Learners Construct Knowledge 115
Knowledge that Is Constructed Depends on Learners' Prior Knowledge 115
Learning Is Enhanced in a Social Environment 115
Learning Requires Practice and Feedback 116
A Model of Human Memory 116
Memory Stores 117
Sensory Memory 117
Working Memory 117
A Model of Working Memory 118
Limitations of Working Memory 119
Reducing Cognitive Load: Accommodating the Limitations of Working Memory 121
Long-Term Memory 122
Representing Declarative Knowledge in Long-Term Memory 123
Representing Procedural Knowledge in Long-Term Memory 125
Cognitive Processes 126
Attention 127
Attracting and Maintaining Attention 127
Perception 127
Encoding 128
Imagery 129
Organization 130
Schema Activation 130
Elaboration 131
The Importance of Cognitive Activity 132
Forgetting 133
Forgetting as Interference 133
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure 134
Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes 134
Putting the Memory Model into Perspective 135
Summary 136
References 137
6 Metacognitive Control of Learning and Remembering 141
Introduction 141
Interplay Between Metacognitive Monitoring and Control 142
Monitoring of Ongoing Learning 142
Judgments of Learning as an Index of Current Learning 143
Monitoring of Retrieval Processes and Control of Output 143
The Study of Metacognitive Control 144
Effectiveness of Metacognitive Control 144
Self-Pacing of Study 144
Devising Study Schedules 145
Selection of Items for Study and Re-study 146
Strategic Use of Self-Testing 147
Accommodating Study to Anticipated Test Conditions 147
Retrieval Strategies 147
Improving Metacognitive Control 148
Improving Monitoring 148
Improving Control at Encoding Via Direct Instruction 148
Improving Control at Encoding via Experience 149
Improving Control at Retrieval Via Direct Instruction 153
Improving Control at Retrieval Via Experience 155
Role of Information Technology 156
Implementing Metacognitive Control 156
Training Metacognitive Control 157
Summary 157
References 158
7 Ethnic Differences on Students' ApproachesINTbreak to Learning: Self-Regulatory Cognitive and Motivational Predictors of Academic Achievement for Latino/a and White College Students
Achievement Differences Among Subgroups in Higher Education: Social and Cultural Factors 165
Secondary Effects: Opportunity to Learn and Prior Knowledge 168
Cognitive and Motivational Factors in Learning and Achievement 168
Summary and Purpose of the Study 172
Method 173
Research Context 173
Subjects 173
Measures 174
Procedure 175
Data Analysis 176
Results 176
Reliabilities, Descriptive Statistics, and Intercorrelations 176
Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis 179
Structural Equation Model Analysis 180
Summary Findings 184
Discussion and Conclusion 184
References 187
8 Intuitions, Conceptions and Frameworks: Modelling Student Cognition in Science Learning 193
Modelling Student Cognition in Relation to Academic Learning 193
Student Learning Difficulties in Science Subjects 194
Examples of Students' Ideas 195
The Uncertain Nature of Students' Alternative Ideas 196
Considering Cognitive Development and Conceptual Learning 198
Spontaneous Learning 198
The Cognitive and the Conceptual 199
Conceptual Development 201
Drawing upon Cognitive Science 201
Folk Psychology and Educational Research 202
Thinking, Knowing and Ideas 202
Memory 203
Situated Knowledge and Distributed Cognition 204
Perception and Conception 205
Constructing Knowledge 206
Conceptual Change 208
Towards a Model of Cognition that Supports Research into Student Learning 209
References 210
9 An Analysis of Design Strategies for Creating Educational Experiences in Virtual Environments 213
Introduction 213
User-Centered Design 214
Integrating Content 220
Visual Representation of Content 224
Motivation 227
Conclusion 231
References 232
Part II Computers and New Science of Learning 234
10 Redesigning Testing: Operationalizing the New Scienceof Learning 235
Introduction: Testing 235
Historical Preamble: The Broad Function of Testing and the Birth of a Specific Testing Industry 237
Reflecting on Testing: The Need for a Theory of Learning and Clarity About Values 239
Advances in Developmental Science and the Birth of the DiscoTest Initiative 241
DiscoTest: Building the Computer-Based Educational Testing Infrastructure of Tomorrow 243
New Tools Foster New Values: Revisioning Education and Testing 249
References 251
11 Self-regulated Learning with MetaTutor: Advancing the Science of Learning with MetaCognitive Tools 253
Introduction 253
Metaphor: MetaCognitive Tools for Enhancing Learning 254
Theoretical Framework: Self-regulated Learning 257
Theoretical Assumptions about SRL and MetaTutor 259
Synthesis of SRL Data on Learning with Hypermedia 260
MetaTutor: A Hypermedia Learning Environment for Biology 262
Preliminary Data on SRL with MetaTutor 264
Implications for the Design of an Adaptive MetaTutor 268
Summary 270
References 271
12 New LearningOld Methods? How E-research Might Change Technology-Enhanced Learning Research 276
Introduction 276
Grids, Clouds, and Web 2.0 for Learning Research 277
Innovation and Inquiry Practices: Distributed Research 280
ICT for Educational Innovation 281
A Teacher-Led Inquiry Platform 283
Process Data Streams and Video Data 285
When Data is Flowing in Streams 286
Collaborative Analysis of Video Recordings 289
Mixed-Method Research: Establishing Trust in Findings 292
Provenance of Data and Findings 293
Conclusions 295
References 296
13 Designing Higher Education Courses Using Open Educational Resources 300
Introduction 300
Online Versus Face-to-Face Teaching 302
Open Educational Resources 303
The Process 304
The Conceptual Framework 305
Conclusions 306
References 308
14 The Evolution of an Automated Reading Strategy Tutor: From the Classroom to a Game-Enhanced Automated System 310
Introduction 310
Self-Explanation Reading Training 311
SERT: One-on-One 312
SERT Introduction 312
SERT Practice and Demonstration 312
Evaluation of One-on-One SERT 313
SERT: Group Training 314
Group SERT Introduction 314
Group SERT Demonstration 314
Group SERT Practice 315
Evaluation of Group SERT 315
Discussion 316
iSTART 316
iSTART Modules 317
Introduction Module 317
Demonstration Module 319
Practice Modules 320
Providing Feedback in iSTART 322
Evaluations of iSTART 323
iSTART Discussion 324
iSTART-ME 325
iSTART-ME Modules 325
Extended Practice 326
MiBoard Game 327
iSTART-ME Discussion 328
General Discussion 328
References 329
15 Experiences in the Field: The Evolution of a Technology-Oriented Teacher Professional Development Model 334
Introduction 334
Technology Context: The Instructional Architect 335
Pedagogical Context: Problem-Based Learning 337
Evolution of the Professional Development Models 338
Model 1: Authentic Problem and Design Centered 338
Evaluation Findings 339
Model 2: Problem-Based Learning: Simple to Complex Problems 341
Evaluation Findings 342
Model 3: Problem-Based Learning: Authentic Design 344
Model 3: Evaluation Findings 345
Long-Term Impact 347
Conclusion 347
References 349
16 A Dialogic Approach to Technology-Enhanced Education for the Global Knowledge Society 351
The Idea of the Knowledge Society 351
Thinking Skills for the Knowledge Age 352
A Dialogic Reconceptualisation of Higher Order Thinking Skills 353
A Dialogic Foundation for the Design of Educational Technology 355
Towards a Framework for the Design of Educational Technology that can Teach Thinking as Dialogue Across Difference 356
Opening Dialogic Spaces 356
Widening Dialogic Spaces 357
Deepen Dialogic Space 357
Teach Content Through Induction into Fields of Dialogue 358
An Example of Broadening Dialogic Space 359
ICT and Dialogue Between Media 360
Blogging as an Example of Induction into and Creation of Dialogic Space 361
Discussion and Conclusion 362
References 363
17 Conceptual Representation EmbodiedINTbreak in Hypermedia: An Approach to Promoting Knowledge Co-Construction
Conceptual Representations Embodied in Hypermedia: Promoting Co-Regulated Learning 366
Hypermedia as a Representational Tool 366
StructureBehaviorFunction as a Conceptual Representation 367
Self-regulated and Co-regulated Learning 369
Method 370
Participants 370
Materials 370
Procedure 371
Coding and Analysis 372
Results 374
Quantitative Results 374
Qualitative Results 376
Discussion 378
References 379
18 Virtual Worlds for Young People in a Program Context: Lessons from Four Case Studies 382
Introduction 382
Zora: A Constructionist Multiuser Virtual Environment 384
Case Study 1: Multicultural Summer Camp 388
Case Study 2: ACT 392
Case Study 3: Transplant Program 396
Case Study 4: ClubZora: An International Network 401
Conclusion 405
References 406
19 New Technologies, Learning Systems, and Communication: Reducing Complexity in the Educational System 409
Introduction 409
Theoretical Framework 410
Introduction to Complexity in Education 410
Systems and Environments 411
Complexity and Contingency 411
Psychic Systems and Social Systems 412
Communication 412
Learning and Teaching 413
Background 415
Challenges for the Educational System 417
Focus 1: Teachers, Their ICT Skills, and Didactical/Pedagogical Skills 417
Design of Environments for Teaching 420
Focus 2: Students' Learning with Media and Technology 421
Focus 3: Management and Technology Issues 423
Further Researchan Invitation 424
References 424
Part III Collaboration and New Science of Learning 428
20 Fostering Higher Levels of Learning Using Diverse Instructional Strategies with Internet Communication Tools 429
Introduction 429
Progressive Pedagogies 430
Guiding Theoretical Framework: The Practical Inquiry Model 431
Integrating Progressive Pedagogies into the Learning Experience 435
Quantitative Content Analysis) 436
Ecological Validity of the Coders 442
Discussion 442
Conclusions 444
References 445
21 Windows into Teaching and Learning Through Social Annotation Practices 448
HyLighter 448
Theoretical Underpinnings 451
Interactive Reading 453
Articles 453
Unpublished Document 457
Case Studies 459
Outcomes 460
Collaborative Concept Mapping 461
Hypermedia-Enhanced Lesson Plans 465
Collaboratively Developed Lesson Plans 466
Limitations 469
Conclusions 469
References 470
22 Orchestrating Learning in a One-to-One Technology Classroom 472
Introduction 472
CSCL Scripts in Face-to-Face Classroom Learning 473
Learning Design and Delivery Tools for One-to-One Scenarios 474
What We Mean by One-to-One Classroom Orchestration and a Proposed Framework 475
Example Scenarios for the One-to-One Classroom 476
A Scenarios Designer for a One-to-One Technology Classroom 478
SceDer Authoring and COML 479
GS-SceDer Learning Environment: A Learning Space for One-to-One Scenarios 481
Results 483
Conclusion 485
References 486
23 Designing Online Learning Environments for Professional Development 489
Introduction 489
Conceptual Framework 490
Exploring the Foundations of Design with Digital Media 491
Overview of Course Design 493
Design Elements 494
Participants 495
Data Sources and Analysis 495
Emerging Issues 496
Teachers' Conceptions of Classroom Inquiry 496
Teachers' Self-Understandings as Agents of Change 498
The Problem of Validity 500
Effectiveness of the Course Design 501
Conclusions 502
References 502
24 Knowledge Building/Knowledge Forum:The Transformation of Classroom Discourse 505
Background 505
Classroom Discourse 505
Online Discourse 507
Methodology 508
Participants 509
Data Analysis 511
Results 512
An Ongoing Questioning Process 512
An Emerging Explanatory Process 515
Discussion, Pedagogical Implications, and Future Steps 517
References 519
25 Digital Video Tools in the Classroom: How to Support Meaningful Collaboration and Critical Advanced Thinking of Students? 522
Introduction 522
Digital Video in Education 523
Tools and Tasks for Learning with Digital Videoan Integrated Approach 525
Video Tools to Guide Collaboration 525
Tools for Collaborative Observation and Analysis 526
Tools for Collaborative Hypervideo Structuring 527
Collaborative Visual Design---a Cognitive Framework 529
Instructional Framing of Collaborative Visual Design: Approaches, Results, Problems 532
Pursuing Instructional Goals and Developing a Student-Centered Learning Task 533
Integration into Noisy Classroom SettingsInitial Results from a Field Study 535
Conclusions 537
References 538
26 Technology for Classroom Orchestration 543
Introduction 543
It Works Well (In My Class) 543
The Orchestration Model 545
Teacher-Centrism 546
Cross-Plane Integration 548
Sequentiality 549
Time Management 550
Physicality 551
The Ecosystem Model 552
Species 552
Selection 553
Legacy 554
Sustainability 555
The SWISH Model and the ManyScripts Environment 555
The ''SWISH'' model 555
The ManyScripts Environment 557
Design Factors 557
The Erfahrraum Model and the TinkerLamp Environment 559
The ''Erfahrraum'' Model 559
The TinkerLamp Environment 560
Design Factors 562
The Shelve and Lantern Environments 563
The Recitation Section Model 563
The Lantern Environment 563
Design Factors 564
Conclusions 564
Implications for Learning Technologies 564
Implications for Design-Based Research 566
Orchestration as Constraints Management 566
Final Word 567
References 568
27 Knowledge Building in Society 2.0: Challengesand Opportunities 571
Introduction 571
Knowledge Building 572
Web 2.0 and Knowledge Building 573
Social Learning Theories Supporting Web 2.0 574
Learning Through Thinking and Reflection 574
Learning Through Communication, Participation, and Interaction 576
Connecting Two Strands of Theories---Agency and Collective Cognitive Responsibility 577
Applications of Web 2.0 Technologies 577
Blogs 577
Wikis 579
Social Bookmarking/Tagging 580
Conclusion 580
References 582
28 Innovations in Culturally Based Science Education Through Partnerships and Community 586
Introduction 586
Background 586
Challenges to and the Need for Innovation 587
Innovation: Partnerships and Communities 589
Research in Indigenous Communities: Background and Organization 590
The Design Process: The Early Stages 591
Community-Based Design: A Closer Look 595
Partnership in Community: Some Consequences 602
Discussion 603
Conclusions 606
References 607
29 New Science of Learning: Exploring the Future of Education 610
Introduction 610
Cognition and New Science of Learning 610
Computer and New Science of Learning 612
Collaboration and New Science of Learning 615
Conclusion 618
References 619
Subject Index 621

Chapter 1 New Digital Media and Their Potential (p. 3-4)

Cognitive Impact on Youth Learning

Margaret Weigel1, Celka Straughn, and Howard Gardner
The Developing Minds and Digital Media Project, Harvard University, Project Zero, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA, e-mail: margaret_weigel@pz.harvard.edu; hgasst@pz.harvard.edu
Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas, 1301 Mississippi St, Lawrence, KS 66045, e-mail: straughn@ku.edu

Introduction

In his 2009 book Grown up Digital, Don Tapscott presents a very positive view of the new digital media (NDM). “The early evidence suggests that the digital immersion [for youth] has a tangible, positive impact. Not only do video game players notice more, but they have more highly developed partial skills. . . the Net Gen mind seems to be incredibly flexible, adaptable and multimedia savvy” (Tapscott, 2008, p. 98). In this new order, others praise the transformational power of social networks which can topple (or at least circumvent) existing hierarchical structures (Benkler, 2007; Shirkey, 2009; Surowiecki, 2004) and potentially reinvent civic engagement (Pettingill, 2008).

Tapscott and his like-mined peers do not represent a consensus. A collection of scholars, educators, and concerned citizens counter it. Rather than ushering in a utopian era of self-directed youth learning across time and space, NDM are in fact making us “dumber” (Bauerlein, 2008) and actually harming our brains (Healy, 1999). While Tapscott and others salute the democratizing power of information on the Internet, Jean Twenge expresses concern: “Suddenly, you don’t have to write a textbook or have a column in a major newspaper for thousands of people to read your words. . . In this environment, there is no authority: information is free, diffuse, and comes from everyone. (Whether it is correct is another matter)” (Twenge, 2006, p. 30).

Of course, it is possible that each of these sides has some truth to it; it is also possible that the NDM will not exert much of an effect. In education, for example, despite all of the predictions—positive and negative—about radio, television, slide projector, and so on, the most likely generalization is that not much has happened in education as a direct result of the introduction of earlier instantiations of new media. One reason for the enormous range of opinion about the NDM is that it is extremely difficult to secure significant data on these issues. The ideal experiments—in which one would divide a polity in half, at random, expose one half to the full range of the NDM, and make it impossible for the other half to have any exposure whatsoever—cannot be conducted. The best hope is to triangulate from a number of sources and see what picture(s) gradually emerge. Studies addressing youth engagements online have leaned toward the social at the expense of considering cognitive or developmental implications (i.e., Blais, Craig, Pepler, & Connolly, 2008; Gee, 2004; Jenkins, Purushotma, Clinton, Weigel, & Robison, 2006; Ito et al., 2008). Those who do address developmental issues (Greenfield, 2004; Schouten, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2007; Subrahmanyama, Greenfield, Kraut, & Gross, 2001; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007) are largely descriptive and do not consider ethical issues.

In our own research for The Developing Minds and Digital Media (DM2) project1 (a component of the GoodWork Project2 at Harvard Project Zero), we wanted to secure a more holistic record of change related to NDM. Our research was driven by the basic question of whether NDM may, or may not, be impacting the way youth think and behave. We focus in particular on changes to students’ “habits of mind,” the mental models which underlie and direct how they engage with the world.