The Science and Physiology of Flexibility and Stretching

David Behm is a University Research Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland. He was a highly competitive athlete, excelling in baseball, ice hockey, and was drafted into the Canadian Football League (1979). His athletic background led him to seek out an academic career in the areas of applied neuromuscular physiology and sport/exercise science. Dr. Behm has won a number of university, national, and international awards based on his internationally recognized research contributions. At the time of publication, he has published over 20 book chapters, over 400 peer-reviewed scientific articles with over 35,000 citations. He consistently presents his research findings internationally and his work is often featured in popular fitness and health magazines and online publications.

Section I: The Science and Physiology of Stretching

1. My Personal Motivation for Stretching

2. History of Stretching

3. Types of Stretching and the Effects on Flexibility

Stretching-Induced Changes in Range of Motion (ROM)

Yoga

Range of Motion (ROM) Norms

Measuring Range of Motion (ROM)

Sex Differences

Ageing Differences

Youth Differences

Genetic Differences

Limb Dominance Differences

Circadian (Diurnal: time of day) Differences

Summary

4. Mechanisms Underlying Acute Changes in Range of Motion (ROM)

Thixotropic Effects

Neural Mechanisms of Acute Static Stretching

Neural Mechanisms of Acute Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretching

Neural Mechanisms of Acute Dynamic Stretching

Stretch Tolerance Sensory Theory

Acute Morphological Static Stretching Mechanisms

Skeletal Structures

Ligaments

Adiposity

Nerves

Muscle Hypertrophy

Intracellular and Extracellular Connective Tissue

Tendons

Fascicles

Acute Morphological Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretching Mechanisms

Acute Morphological Dynamic Stretching Mechanisms

Summary

5. Stretch Training-related Range of Motion (ROM) Changes and Mechanisms

Plastic Neural Adaptations

Plastic Morphological Adaptations

Psychological Adaptations

Summary

6. Global Effects of Stretching

Crossover or non-local muscle fatigue

Global Stretching Effects on Range of Motion (ROM)

Global Stretching Effects on Performance

Mechanisms Underlying Global Stretching Effects

Global Effects of Foam Rolling

Summary

7. Recommendations for Stretch prescription

Stretching Duration

Stretching Intensity

Optimal Time of Day to Stretch

Stretching Frequency (Days/week)

Pre- versus post-workout stretching

Stretching for Relaxation

Ventilatory Effects on Stretching

Combining Stretching with Muscular Contractions or Massage

Effect of Temperature on Stretching

Stretching under Metastable Conditions

Summary

8. Stretching Effects on Injury Reduction and Health

Physiological Rationale for Stretch-induced Injury Reduction

Dynamic Stretching and Activity Effects on Injury Incidence

Stretching Effects on Posture, Low Back Pain and Compensatory Overuse Syndromes

Effects of Immobilization on Flexibility

Stretching Effects on Dysmenorrhea

Stretching Effects on the Cardiovascular System

Summary

9. Does Stretching Affect Performance?

Static and PNF Stretching

Effects of Static Stretching on the Stretch-Shortening Cycle

Stretching Effects on Balance

Effects of Flexibility Training

Ageing Effects

Effect of Stretching Intensity

Cost Benefit Analysis

Effects of Dynamic Stretching on Performance

Effects of Combining Static and Dynamic Stretching on Performance

Effects of Ballistic Stretching on Performance

Full Warm-ups

Limitations of Acute Stretching Studies

Improving Performance by Limiting Muscle Soreness

Summary

10. Effect of Stretch Training on Functional Performance

Static Stretching

Dynamic Stretch Training

Summary

Chapter 11: Effects of Stretch Training on Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy

Author: Konstantin Warneke

What humans can learn from chicken and quails

Does stretching provide a sufficient stimulus to enhance human muscle strength and size?

Underlying mechanisms of stretch-mediated hypertrophy and strength increases

Practical applications and limitations

Section II: The Science and Physiology of Alternative Techniques for Increasing Range of Motion

12: Effects of Resistance Training on Range of Motion (ROM)

Author: Shahab Alizadeh

Moderating Variables

Possible Mechanisms

Summary

13. Acute and Chronic Effects of Foam Rolling Effects on Range of Motion (ROM)

and Performance

Author: Andreas Konrad

Fascial Restrictions and Myofascial Adhesions

Type of foam rollers

Acute foam rolling effects

Chronic foam rolling effects

Rolling Mechanisms

Other potential benefits or contradictors

Rolling Recommendations

Summary

14. Local Vibration Effects on Range of Motion (ROM) and Performance

Effects on Range of Motion (ROM)

Effects on Performance

Mechanisms

Summary

15. Instrument Assisted Soft Tissue Mobilization (IASTM)- no figure call outs

Acute Effects on Range of Motion (ROM)

Training Effects on Range of Motion (ROM)

Global effects of IASTM

IASTM Effects on Performance

Mechanisms

Summary

16. Flossing Effects on Range of Motion (ROM) and Performance

Floss Band Effects on ROM

Flossing Effects on Performance

Mechanisms

Flossing Effects on Pain

Summary

17. Stretching Exercise Illustrations