Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Preface 23
Chapter 1 Properties and Sources of Radiation 26
1.1 Types of Radiation 26
1.2 Waves or Particles? 27
1.3 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay 29
1.3.A: Decay Energy or Q-Value 34
1.3.B: The Decay Equation 36
1.3.C: Composite Radionuclides 40
1.3.D: Radioactive Chain 43
1.3.E: Decay Equilibrium 47
1.3.F: Branching Ratio 49
1.3.G: Units of Radioactivity 50
1.4 Activation 51
1.5 Sources of Radiation 52
1.5.A: Natural Sources 52
1.5.B: Man-Made Sources 54
1.6 General Properties and Sources of Particles and Waves 55
1.6.A: Photons 56
1.6.B: Electrons 66
1.6.C: Positrons 70
1.6.D: Protons 71
1.6.E: Neutrons 73
1.6.F: Alpha Particles 78
1.6.G: Fission Fragments 79
1.6.H: Muons, Neutrinos and other Particles 81
Chapter 2 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 90
2.1 Some Basic Concepts and Terminologies 90
2.1.A: Inverse Square Law 91
2.1.B: Cross Section 92
2.1.C: Mean Free Path 93
2.1.D: Radiation Length 95
2.1.E: Conservation Laws 99
2.2 Types of Particle Interactions 101
2.2.A: Elastic Scattering 102
2.2.B: Inelastic Scattering 102
2.2.C: Annihilation 102
2.2.D: Bremsstrahlung 104
2.2.E: Cherenkov Radiation 105
2.3 Interaction of Photons with Matter 107
2.3.A: Interaction Mechanisms 107
2.3.B: Passage of Photons through Matter 122
2.4 Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter 130
2.4.A: Rutherford Scattering 130
2.4.B: Passage of Charged Particles through Matter 135
2.4.C: Bragg Curve 141
2.4.D: Energy Straggling 142
2.4.E: Range and Range Straggling 143
2.5 Interaction of Electrons with Matter 147
2.5.A: Interaction Modes 147
2.5.B: Passage of Electrons through Matter 152
2.5.C: Energy Straggling 155
2.5.D: Range of Electrons 157
2.6 Interaction of Neutral Particles with Matter 162
2.6.A: Neutrons 162
2.7 Problems 168
Chapter 3 Gas Filled Detectors 174
3.1 Production of Electron-Ion Pairs 174
3.2 Diffusion and Drift of Charges in Gases 177
3.2.A: Diffusion in the Absence of Electric Field 177
3.2.B: Drift of Charges in Electric Field 178
3.2.C: Effects of Impurities on Charge Transport 182
3.3 Regions of Operation of Gas Filled Detectors 186
3.3.A: Recombination Region 186
3.3.B: Ion Chamber Region 186
3.3.C: Proportional Region 187
3.3.D: Region of Limited Proportionality 191
3.3.E: Geiger-Mueller Region 191
3.3.F: Continuous Discharge 194
3.4 Ionization Chambers 194
3.4.A: Current Voltage Characteristics 195
3.4.B: Mechanical Design 195
3.4.C: Choice of Gas 202
3.4.D: Special Types of Ion Chambers 203
3.4.E: Applications of Ion Chambers 206
3.4.F: Advantages and Disadvantages of Ion Chambers 206
3.5 Proportional Counters 207
3.5.A: Multiplication Factor 209
3.5.B: Choice of Gas 213
3.5.C: Special Types of Proportional Counters 215
3.6 Geiger-Mueller Counters 216
3.6.A: Current-Voltage Characteristics 218
3.6.B: Dead Time 219
3.6.C: Choice of Gas 221
3.6.D: Quenching 222
3.6.E: Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Counters 223
3.7 Sources of Error in Gaseous Detectors 223
3.7.A: Recombination Losses 223
3.7.B: Effects of Contaminants 225
3.7.C: Effects of Space Charge Buildup 227
3.8 Detector Efficiency 232
3.8.A: Signal-to-Noise Ratio 237
Chapter 4 Liquid Filled Detectors 246
4.1 Properties of Liquids 246
4.1.A: Charge Pair Generation and Recombination 246
4.1.B: Drift of Charges 251
4.2 Liquid Ionization Chamber 254
4.2.A: Applications of Liquid Filled Ion Chambers 255
4.3 Liquid Proportional Counters 255
4.3.A: Charge Multiplication 255
4.4 Commonly Used Liquid Detection Media 258
4.5 Sources of Error in Liquid Filled Ionizing Detectors 259
4.5.A: Recombination 259
4.5.B: Parasitic Electron Capture and Trapping 261
4.6 Cherenkov Detectors 265
4.7 Bubble Chamber 267
4.8 Liquid Scintillator Detectors 268
Chapter 5 Solid State Detectors 274
5.1 Semiconductor Detectors 274
5.1.A: Structure of Semiconductors 275
5.1.B: Charge Carriers Distribution 276
5.1.C: Intrinsic, Compensated, and Extrinsic Semiconductors 276
5.1.D: Doping 277
5.1.E: Mechanism and Statistics of Electron-Hole Pair Production 280
5.1.F: Charge Conductivity 289
5.1.G: Materials Suitable for Radiation Detection 291
5.1.H: The pn-Junction 309
5.1.I: Modes of Operation of a pn-Diode 319
5.1.J: Desirable Properties 322
5.1.K: Specific Semiconductor Detectors 323
5.1.L: Radiation Damage in Semiconductors 327
5.2 Diamond Detectors 331
5.2.A: Charge Pair Production 332
5.2.B: Recombination 332
5.2.C: Drift of Charge Pairs 333
5.2.D: Leakage Current 335
5.2.E: Detector Design 335
5.2.F: Radiation Hardness 336
5.2.G: Applications 337
5.3 Thermoluminescent Detectors 337
5.3.A: Principle of Thermoluminescence 338
Chapter 6 Scintillation Detectors and Photodetectors 344
6.1 Scintillation Mechanism and Scintillator Properties 345
6.1.A: Basic Scintillation Mechanism 345
6.1.B: Light Yield 347
6.1.C: Rise and Decay Times 350
6.1.D: Quenching 352
6.1.E: Density and Atomic Weight 353
6.1.F: Mechanical Properties and Stability 353
6.1.G: Optical Properties 353
6.1.H: Phosphorescence or Afterglow 354
6.1.I: Temperature Dependence 355
6.1.J: Radiation Damage 357
6.1.K: Scintillation Efficiency 358
6.2 Organic Scintillators 361
6.2.A: Scintillation Mechanism 361
6.2.B: Plastic Scintillators 364
6.2.C: Liquid Scintillators 370
6.2.D: Crystalline Scintillators 373
6.3 Inorganic Scintillators 375
6.3.A: Scintillation Mechanism 376
6.3.B: Radiation Damage 377
6.3.C: Some Common Inorganic Scintillators 378
6.4 Transfer of Scintillation Photons 385
6.4.A: Types of Light Guides 386
6.5 Photodetectors 391
6.5.A: Photomultiplier Tubes 392
6.5.B: Photodiode Detectors 428
6.5.C: Avalanche Photodiode Detectors (APD) 430
Chapter 7 Position Sensitive Detection and Imaging 448
7.1 Some Important Terminologies and Quantities 448
7.1.A: Spatial Resolution 448
7.1.B: Efficiency 462
7.1.C: Sensitivity 464
7.1.D: Dynamic Range 464
7.1.E: Uniformity 464
7.1.F: Temporal Linearity 465
7.1.G: Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) 465
7.2 Position Sensitive Detection 466
7.2.A: Types of Position Sensitive Detectors 466
7.2.B: Multiwire Proportional Chambers (MWPCs) 466
7.2.C: Multiwire Drift Chamber 470
7.2.D: Microstrip Gas Chambers 470
7.2.E: Semiconductor Microstrip Detectors (SMSDs) 471
7.3 Imaging Devices 475
7.3.A: Conventional Imaging 475
7.3.B: Electronics Imaging 476
7.3.C: Charged Coupled Devices 477
7.3.D: Direct Imaging 477
7.3.E: Indirect Imaging 481
7.3.F: Microstrip and Multiwire Detectors 482
7.3.G: Scintillating Fiber Detectors 482
Chapter 8 Signal Processing 488
8.1 Preamplification 489
8.1.A: Voltage Sensitive Preamplifier 490
8.1.B: Current Sensitive Preamplifier 492
8.1.C: Charge Sensitive Preamplifier 493
8.2 Signal Transport 499
8.2.A: Type of Cable 501
8.3 Pulse Shaping 505
8.3.A: Delay Line Pulse Shaping 505
8.3.B: CR-RC Pulse Shaping 506
8.3.C: Semi-Gaussian Pulse Shaping 513
8.3.D: Semi-Triangular Pulse Shaping 514
8.4 Filtering 515
8.4.A: Low Pass Filter 516
8.4.B: High Pass Filter 518
8.4.C: Band Pass Filter 518
8.5 Amplification 518
8.6 Discrimination 519
8.6.A: Pulse Counting 520
8.7 Analog to Digital Conversion 523
8.7.A: A/D-Conversion Related Parameters 523
8.7.B: A/D Conversion Methods 525
8.7.C: Hybrid ADCs 531
8.8 Digital Signal Processing 531
8.8.A: Digital Filters 533
8.9 Electronics Noise 534
8.9.A: Types of Electronics Noise 536
8.9.B: Noise in Specific Components 541
8.9.C: Measuring System Noise 544
8.9.D: Noise Reduction Techniques 544
Chapter 9 Essential Statistics for Data Analysis 550
9.1 Measures of Centrality 551
9.2 Measure of Dispersion 553
9.3 Probability 553
9.3.A: Frequentist Approach 554
9.3.B: Bayesian Approach 554
9.3.C: Probability Density Function 554
9.3.D: Some Common Distribution Functions 561
9.4 Confidence Intervals 571
9.5 Measurement Uncertainty 573
9.5.A: Systematic Errors 573
9.5.B: Random Errors 574
9.5.C: Error Propagation 574
9.5.D: Presentation of Results 576
9.6 Confidence Tests 576
9.6.A: Chi-Square (& #967
9.6.B: Student's t Test 578
9.7 Regression 580
9.7.A: Simple Linear Regression 580
9.7.B: Nonlinear Regression 581
9.8 Correlation 583
9.8.A: Pearson r or Simple Linear Correlation 584
9.9 Time Series Analysis 586
9.9.A: Smoothing 587
9.10 Frequency Domain Analysis 588
9.11 Counting Statistics 590
9.11.A: Measurement Precision and Detection Limits 590
Chapter 10 Software for Data Analysis 600
10.1 Standard Analysis Packages 600
10.1.A: ROOT 600
10.1.B: Origin® 611
10.1.C: MATLAB® 616
10.2 Custom-Made Data Analysis Packages 622
10.2.A: Data Import/Export Routines 623
10.2.B: Data Analysis Routines 624
10.2.C: Code Generation 625
10.2.D: Result Display 625
Chapter 11 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 628
11.1 Importance of Dosimetry 628
11.1.A Dose and Dose Rate 629
11.2 Quantities Related to Dosimetry 629
11.2.A: Radiation Exposure and Dose 629
11.2.B: Flux or Fluence Rate 634
11.2.C: Integrated Flux or Fluence 635
11.2.D: Exposure and Absorbed Dose - Mathematical Definitions 636
11.2.E: Kerma, Cema, and Terma 640
11.2.F: Measuring Kerma and Exposure 644
11.2.G: Cavity Theories 644
11.2.H: LET and RBE 647
11.2.I: Beam Size 648
11.2.J: Internal Dose 649
11.3 Passive Dosimetry 652
11.3.A: Thermoluminescent Dosimetry 652
11.3.B: Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimetry 656
11.3.C: Film Dosimetry 658
11.3.D: Track Etch Dosimetry 660
11.4 Active Dosimetry 661
11.4.A: Ion Chamber Dosimetry 661
11.4.B: Solid State Dosimetry 667
11.4.C: Plastic Scintillator Dosimeter 671
11.4.D: Quartz Fiber Electroscope 672
11.5 Microdosimetry 674
11.5.A: Microdosimetric Quantities 674
11.5.B: Experimental Techniques 676
11.6 Biological Effects of Radiation 681
11.6.A: Acute and Chronic Radiation Exposure 682
11.6.B: Effects and Symptoms of Exposure 685
11.6.C: Exposure Limits 685
11.7 Radiation Protection 687
11.7.A: Exposure Reduction 687
Chapter 12 Radiation Spectroscopy 698
12.1 Spectroscopy of Photons 698
12.1.A: & #947
12.1.B: Calibration 702
12.1.C: X-ray Spectroscopy 703
12.2 Spectroscopy of Charged Particles 717
12.2.A: & #945
12.2.B: Electron Spectroscopy 723
12.3 Neutron Spectroscopy 724
12.3.A: Neutrons as Matter Probes 724
12.3.B: Neutron Spectrometry Techniques 726
12.4 Mass Spectroscopy 735
12.5 Time Spectroscopy 736
Chapter 13 Data Acquisition Systems 742
13.1 Data Acquisition Chain 742
13.1.A: Pulse Counting 742
13.1.B: Energy Spectroscopy 744
13.1.C: Time Spectroscopy 744
13.1.D: Coincidence Spectroscopy 745
13.2 Modular Instruments 746
13.2.A: NIM Standard 746
13.2.B: CAMAC Standard 750
13.2.C: VME Standard 751
13.2.D: FASTBUS Standard 754
13.3 PC Based Systems 754
13.3.A: PCI Boards 754
13.3.B: PC Serial Port Modules 755
13.3.C: PC Parallel Port Modules 757
13.3.D: USB Based Modules 757
13.3.E: TCP/IP Based Systems 757
Appendices 762
A: Essential Electronic Measuring Devices 764
A.1 Multimeters 764
A.2 Oscilloscope 766
B: Constants and Conversion Factors 774
B.1 Constants 774
B.2 Masses and Electrical Charges of Particles 775
B.3 Conversion Prefixes 776
C: VME Connector Pin Assignments 778
Index 782
A 782
B 782
C 782
D 783
E 783
F 784
G 784
H 784
I 784
J 785
K 785
L 785
M 785
N 785
O 785
P 785
Q 786
R 786
S 787
T 788
U 788
V 788
W 789
X 789