Wine Science (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Wine Science: Principles and Applications 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
About the Author 14
Preface 16
Acknowledgments 18
Chapter 1 Introduction 20
Grapevine and Wine Origin 20
Commercial Importance of Grapes and Wine 24
Wine Classification 25
Still Table Wines 27
Sparkling Wines 28
Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines) 29
Wine Quality 29
Health-related Aspects of Wine Consumption 30
Suggested Readings 32
References 32
Chapter 2 Grape Species and Varieties 34
Introduction 34
The Genus Vitis 35
Geographic Origin and Distribution of Vitis and Vitis vinifera 38
Domestication of Vitis vinifera 40
Cultivar Origins 45
Grapevine Improvement 50
Standard Breeding Techniques 50
Genetic Engineering 52
Clonal Selection 53
Somaclonal Selection and Mutation 57
Grapevine Cultivars 57
Vitis vinifera Cultivars 58
Interspecies Hybrids 62
Suggested Readings 64
References 65
Chapter 3 Grapevine Structure and Function 69
Vegetative Structure and Function 69
The Root System 70
The Shoot System 75
Tendrils 80
Leaves 81
Reproductive Structure and Development 86
Inflorescence (Flower Cluster) 86
Berry Growth and Development 93
Suggested Readings 117
References 119
Chapter 4 Vineyard Practice 127
Vine Cycle and Vineyard Activity 127
Management of Vine Growth 130
Yield/Quality Ratio 130
Physiological Effects of Pruning 133
Pruning Options 135
Pruning Level and Timing 136
Bearing Wood Selection 141
Pruning Procedures 141
Training Options and Systems 142
Canopy Management and Training System Development 151
Selected Training Systems 151
Ancient Roman Example 156
Control of Vine Vigor (Devigoration) 158
Rootstock 159
Vine Propagation and Grafting 163
Multiplication Procedures 163
Grafting 165
Soil Preparation 168
Vineyard Planting and Establishment 168
Irrigation 169
Timing and Need for Irrigation 174
Water Quality and Salinity 175
Types of Irrigation 176
Fertilization 179
Factors Affecting Nutrient Supply and Acquisition 179
Assessment of Nutrient Need 182
Nutrient Requirements 184
Organic Fertilizers 191
Disease, Pest, and Weed Control 194
Control of Pathogens 196
Consequences of Pathogenesis for Fruit Quality 202
Examples of Grapevine Diseases and Pests 204
Harvesting 231
Criteria for Harvest Timing 231
Sampling 234
Harvest Mechanisms 235
Measurement of Vineyard Variability 239
Suggested Readings 240
References 242
Chapter 5 Site Selection and Climate 258
Soil Influences 259
Geologic Origin 259
Texture 259
Structure 260
Drainage and Water Availability 261
Soil Depth 262
Soil Fauna and Flora 262
Nutrient Content and pH 264
Color 264
Organic Content 265
Topographic Influences 265
Solar Exposure 266
Wind Direction 267
Frost and Winter Protection 267
Altitude 267
Drainage 268
Atmospheric Influences 268
Temperature 270
Solar Radiation 278
Wind 282
Water 283
Suggested Readings 284
References 285
Chapter 6 Chemical Constituents of Grapes and Wine 289
Introduction 289
Overview of Chemical Functional Groups 290
Chemical Constituents 293
Water 293
Sugars 293
Pectins, Gums, and Related Polysaccharides 294
Alcohols 295
Acids 297
Phenols and Related Phenol (Phenyl) Derivatives 300
Aldehydes and Ketones 319
Acetals 320
Esters 320
Lactones and Other Oxygen Heterocycles 322
Terpenes and Oxygenated Derivatives 323
Nitrogen-containing Compounds 324
Sulfur-containing Compounds 326
Hydrocarbons and Derivatives 328
Macromolecules 328
Vitamins 330
Dissolved Gases 330
Minerals 335
Chemical Nature of Varietal Aromas 336
Appendix 6.1 339
Appendix 6.2 340
Appendix 6.3 341
Suggested Readings 341
References 342
Chapter 7 Fermentation 351
Basic Procedures of Wine Production 352
Prefermentation Practices 353
Destemming 353
Sorting 354
Crushing 355
Supraextraction 355
Maceration (Skin Contact) 355
Dejuicing 359
Pressing 359
Must Clarification 362
Adjustments to Juice and Must 363
Alcoholic Fermentation 371
Fermentors 371
Fermentation 374
Biochemistry of Alcoholic Fermentation 377
Yeasts 382
Environmental Factors Affecting Fermentation 392
Malolactic Fermentation 407
Lactic Acid Bacteria 408
Effects of Malolactic Fermentation 410
Origin and Growth of Lactic Acid Bacteria 413
Control 420
Appendix 7.1 422
Appendix 7.2 423
Suggested Readings 423
References 425
Chapter 8 Postfermentation Treatments and Related Topics 437
Wine Adjustments 437
Acidity and pH Adjustment 438
Sweetening 440
Dealcoholization 441
Flavor Enhancement 441
Sur lies Maturation 441
Color Adjustment 442
Blending 443
Stabilization and Clarification 444
Stabilization 444
Fining 454
Clarification 457
Aging 460
Effects of Aging 462
Factors Affecting Aging 467
Rejuvenation of Old Wines 470
Aging Potential 470
Oak and Cooperage 471
Oak Species and Wood Properties 471
Barrel Production 476
Chemical Composition of Oak 485
Oxygen Uptake 488
In-barrel Fermentation 489
Advantages and Disadvantages of Oak Cooperage 489
Alternative Sources of Oak Flavor 490
Other Cooperage Materials 491
Cork and Other Bottle Closures 492
Cork 492
Cork Faults 500
Alternative Bottle Closures 503
Cork Insertion 505
Bottles and Other Containers 507
Glass Bottles 508
Bag-in-box Containers 511
Wine Spoilage 512
Cork-related Problems 512
Yeast-induced Spoilage 513
Bacteria-induced Spoilage 515
Sulfur Off-odors 518
Additional Spoilage Problems 521
Accidental Contamination 523
Suggested Readings 525
References 526
Chapter 9 Specific and Distinctive Wine Styles 539
Sweet Table Wines 539
Botrytized Wines 540
Nonbotrytized Sweet Wine 545
Red Wine Styles 546
Recioto-style Wines 546
Carbonic Maceration Wines 548
Sparkling Wines 557
Traditional Method 557
Transfer Method 565
Bulk Method 566
Other Methods 567
Carbonation 567
Production of Rosé and Red Sparkling Wines 567
Effervescence and Foam Characteristics 567
Fortified Wines 571
Sherry and Sherry-like Wines 571
Porto and Port-like Wines 579
Madeira 582
Vermouth 583
Brandy 584
Suggested Readings 589
References 590
Chapter 10 Wine Laws, Authentication, and Geography 596
Appellation Control Laws 596
Basic Concepts and Significance 596
Geographic Expression 598
Detection of Wine Misrepresentation and Adulteration 605
Validation of Geographic Origin 605
Validation of Conformity to Wine Production Regulations 607
World Wine Regions 608
Western Europe 609
North Africa and the Near East 638
Far East 638
Australia and New Zealand 639
South Africa 644
South America 646
North America 649
Suggested Readings 655
References 657
Chapter 11 Sensory Perception and Wine Assessment 660
Visual Sensations 660
Color 660
Clarity 662
Viscosity 662
Spritz (Effervescence) 662
Tears 662
Taste and Mouth-feel 663
Taste 663
Factors Influencing Taste Perception 665
Mouth-feel 667
Taste and Mouth-feel Sensations in Wine Tasting 670
Odor 671
The Olfactory System 671
Odorants and Olfactory Stimulation 674
Sensations from the Trigeminal Nerve 676
Odor Perception 676
Factors Affecting Olfactory Perception 679
Odor Assessment in Wine Tasting 681
Off-odors 681
Wine Assessment and Sensory Analysis 683
Conditions for Sensory Analysis 684
Wine Score Cards 686
Number of Tasters 687
Tasters 688
Training 688
Measuring Tasting Acuity and Consistency 688
Wine-tasting Technique 689
Appearance 689
Orthonasal Odor 690
In-mouth Sensations 691
Finish 693
Assessment of Overall Quality 693
Wine Terminology 693
Statistical and Descriptive Analysis of Tasting Results 694
Simple Tests 694
Analysis of Variance 695
Multivariate Analysis and Descriptive Analysis of Wine 695
Objective Wine Analysis 696
Appendix 11.1 697
Suggested Readings 698
References 698
Chapter 12 Wine and Health 705
Introduction 705
Metabolism of Alcohol 706
Physiological Actions 707
Food Value 708
Digestion 708
Phenolic Bioavailability 709
Antimicrobial Effects 710
Cardiovascular Disease 710
Antioxidant Effects 713
Vision 713
Neurodegenerative Diseases 714
Osteoporosis 714
Gout 714
Arthritis 714
Diabetes 714
Goitre 715
Kidney Stones 715
Cancer 715
Allergies and Hypersensitivity 715
Headaches 717
Dental Erosion 719
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 719
Contraindications 719
Wine and Medications 720
Suggested Readings 720
References 721
Glossary 726
A 726
B 727
C 727
D 729
E 729
F 729
G 730
H 730
I 731
K 731
L 731
M 731
N 732
O 732
P 732
Q 733
R 733
S 734
T 735
U 735
V 736
W 736
X 736
Y 736
Index 738
A 738
B 740
C 742
D 745
E 745
F 746
G 748
H 749
I 750
J 751
K 751
L 751
M 752
N 754
O 755
P 756
Q 758
R 758
S 759
T 762
U 764
V 764
W 765
X 766
Y 766
Z 766
Series 768
Color Plates 772