Environmental Microbiology (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Environmental Microbiology 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Preface 16
Acknowledgments 18
The Authors 20
Contributing Authors 22
Part I: Review of Basic Microbiological Concepts 24
Chapter 1. Introduction to Environmental Microbiology 26
1.1 Introduction 26
1.2 An Historical Perspective 26
1.3 Modern Environmental Microbiology 29
1.4 Purpose and Organization of This Text 30
Chapter 2. Microorganisms 32
2.1 Classification of Organisms 33
2.2 Eubacteria 33
2.2.1 Cell Envelope 34
2.2.2 Cytoplasm 37
2.2.3 Glycocalyx 39
2.2.4 Appendages 39
2.2.5 Endospores 39
2.2.6 Information Transfer 40
2.2.7 Metabolism 41
2.3 The Archaea 43
2.3.1 Archaean Habitats 44
2.3.2 Archaean Function 44
2.4 Fungi 45
2.4.1 Fungal Structure 45
2.4.2 Fungal Diversity 46
2.4.3 Ecological Considerations 47
2.5 Slime Molds 48
2.6 Protozoa 48
2.6.1 Structure and Function 48
2.6.2 Physiological and Ecological Considerations 49
2.7 Algae 49
2.7.1 Cell Structure 50
2.7.2 Physiological and Ecological Considerations 50
2.8 Viruses 51
2.8.1 Infective Nature of Viruses 52
2.8.2 Procaryotic Viruses 53
2.8.3 Eucaryotic Viruses 55
2.9 Other Biological Entities 56
2.9.1 Viroids 56
2.9.2 Prions 56
References 57
Chapter 3. Bacterial Growth 60
3.1 Growth in Pure Culture in a Flask 61
3.1.1 The Lag Phase 61
3.1.2 The Exponential Phase 62
3.1.3 The Stationary Phase 63
3.1.4 The Death Phase 64
3.1.5 Effect of Substrate Concentration on Growth 65
3.2 Continuous Culture 67
3.3 Growth in the Environment 69
3.3.1 The Lag Phase 70
3.3.2 The Exponential Phase 70
3.3.3 The Stationary and Death Phases 70
3.4 Mass Balance of Growth 72
3.4.1 Aerobic Conditions 73
3.4.2 Anaerobic Conditions 75
Questions and Problems 76
References and Recommended Readings 77
Part II: Microbial Environments 78
Chapter 4. Earth Environments 80
4.1 Earth's Living Skin 80
4.2 Physicochemical Characteristics of the Earth Environment 81
4.2.1 Earth Environments 81
4.2.2 The Solid Phase 82
4.2.3 The Liquid Phase 90
4.2.4 Soil Atmosphere 92
4.3 Soil as a Microbial Environment 93
4.3.1 Biotic Stresses 93
4.3.2 Abiotic Stresses 93
4.4 Microorganisms in Surface Soils 94
4.4.1 Bacteria 94
4.4.2 Actinomycetes 94
4.4.3 Fungi 96
4.4.4 Algae 97
4.4.5 Protozoa 97
4.5 Distribution of Microorganisms in Soil 98
4.6 Microorganisms in Subsurface Environments 99
4.6.1 Microorganisms in Shallow Subsurface Environments 100
4.6.2 Microorganisms in Deep Subsurface Environments 100
Questions and Problems 104
References and Recommended Readings 104
Chapter 5. Aeromicrobiology 106
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Important Airborne Pathogens 106
5.3 Important Airborne Toxins 107
5.4 Aerosols 108
5.5 Nature of Bioaerosols 110
5.6 Aeromicrobiological Pathway 110
5.6.1 Launching 111
5.6.2 Transport 111
5.6.3 Deposition 112
5.7 Microbial Survival in the Air 114
5.7.1 Relative Humidity 114
5.7.2 Temperature 115
5.7.3 Radiation 115
5.7.4 Oxygen, OAFs, and Ions 115
5.8 Extramural Aeromicrobiology 115
5.8.1 Agriculture 115
5.8.2 Waste Disposal 117
5.9 Intramural Aeromicrobiology 118
5.9.1 Buildings 118
5.9.2 Public Health 119
5.9.3 Hospitals and Laboratories 119
5.10 Bioaerosol Control 120
5.10.1 Ventilation 120
5.10.2 Filtration 120
5.10.3 Biocidal Control 120
5.10.4 Isolation 121
5.11 Biosafety in the Laboratory 121
5.11.1 Biological Safety Cabinets 121
5.11.2 Biosafety Laboratories 123
Questions and Problems 124
References and Recommended Readings 124
Chapter 6. Aquatic Environments 126
6.1 Introduction 126
6.2 Microbial Habitats in the Aquatic Environment 126
6.2.1 Planktonic Environment 126
6.2.2 Benthic Habitat 128
6.2.3 Microbial Mats 130
6.2.4 Biofilms 130
6.3 Aquatic Environments 133
6.3.1 Freshwater Environments 133
6.3.2 Brackish Water 138
6.3.3 Marine Water 138
6.3.4 Subterranean Water 140
6.4 Aquatic Microbes in the News 140
6.4.1 Shotgun Sequencing Reveals Secrets about the Sargasso Sea 140
6.4.2 Aquatic Microbes: Food for the Future 142
Questions and Problems 143
References and Recommended Readings 143
Chapter 7. Extreme Environments 146
7.1 Low Temperature Environments 147
7.1.1 McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica 147
7.2 High Temperature Environments 149
7.2.1 Geothermal Hot Springs 149
7.3 Desiccation and UV Stress 151
7.3.1 The Atacama Desert, Chile 151
7.4 Environments Based on Chemoautotrophy 153
7.4.1 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents 153
7.5 Acidic Environments 155
7.5.1 Acid Mine Drainage 155
Questions and Problems 156
References 157
Part III: Detection, Enumeration, and Identification 158
Chapter 8. Environmental Sample Collection and Processing 160
8.1 Soils and Sediments 160
8.1.1 Sampling Strategies and Methods for Surface Soils 161
8.1.2 Sampling Strategies and Methods for the Subsurface 162
8.1.3 Sample Processing and Storage 164
8.2 Water 167
8.2.1 Sampling Strategies and Methods for Water 167
8.2.2 Processing Water Samples for Virus Analysis 168
8.2.3 Processing Water Samples for Detection of Bacteria 170
8.2.4 Processing Water Samples for Detection of Protozoan Parasites 171
8.3 Air 172
8.3.1 Sampling Devices for the Collection of Air Samples 172
8.4 Detection of Microorganisms on Fomites 176
Questions and Problems 177
References and Recommended Readings 177
Chapter 9. Microscopic Techniques 180
9.1 History of Microscopy 180
9.2 Theory of Microscopy 180
9.3 Visible Light Microscopy 182
9.3.1 Types of Light Microscopy 182
9.3.2 Sample Preparation 185
9.4 Fluorescence Microscopy 186
9.4.1 Direct Counts 187
9.4.2 Fluorescent Immunolabeling 188
9.4.3 Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization 188
9.4.4 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 190
9.4.5 Flow Cytometry 190
9.5 Electron Microscopy 190
9.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 190
9.5.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 192
9.5.3 Elemental Analysis 193
9.6 Scanning Probe Microscopy 194
9.6.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 194
9.7 Imaging 194
Questions and Problems 194
References 195
Chapter 10. Cultural Methods 196
10.1 Cultural Methods for Isolation and Enumeration of Bacteria 196
10.1.1 Enumeration and Isolation Techniques 196
10.1.2 Plating Methods 197
10.1.3 Most Probable Number Technique 198
10.2 Culture Media for Bacteria 199
10.2.1 General Media Used for Culturing Bacteria 199
10.2.2 New Approaches to Enhanced Cultivation of Soil Bacteria 206
10.3 Cultural Methods for Fungi 207
10.4 Cultural Methods for Algae and Cyanobacteria 208
10.5 Cell Culture–Based Detection Methods for Viruses 209
Questions and Problems 211
References and Recommended Readings 211
Chapter 11. Physiological Methods 214
11.1 Introduction 214
11.2 Measuring Microbial Activity in Pure Culture 215
11.2.1 Substrate Utilization 215
11.2.2 Terminal Electron Acceptors 218
11.2.3 Cell Mass 219
11.2.4 Carbon Dioxide Evolution 220
11.3 Choosing the Appropriate Activity Measurement for Environmental Samples 221
11.4 Carbon Respiration 221
11.4.1 Measurement of Respiratory Gases, CO[sub(2)] and O[sub(2)], in Laboratory and Field Studies 222
11.4.2 The Application of Respiration Measurements in Environmental Microbiology 225
11.4.3 Tracer Studies to Determine Heterotrophic Potential 230
11.4.4 Anaerobic Respiration as an Indicator of Microbial Activity 232
11.5 Incorporation of Radiolabelled Tracers into Cellular Macromolecules 232
11.5.1 Incorporation of Thymidine into DNA 233
11.5.2 Incorporation of Leucine into Protein 233
11.6 Adenylate Energy Charge 234
11.7 Enzyme Assays 235
11.7.1 Dehydrogenase Assay 235
11.8 Stable Isotope Probing 238
11.9 Functional Genomics and Proteomics-Based Approaches 238
11.9.1 Functional Genomics 238
11.9.2 Proteomics 240
Questions and Problems 242
References and Recommended Readings 244
Chapter 12. Immunological Methods 248
12.1 Introduction 248
12.2 What Is an Antibody? 249
12.2.1 Antibody Diversity 250
12.2.2 Antibody Specificity 250
12.2.3 Antibody Affinity 250
12.2.4 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibodies 251
12.2.5 Antiglobulins 251
12.3 Immunoassays 253
12.3.1 Fluorescent Immunolabeling 255
12.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays 256
12.3.3 Competitive ELISA 257
12.3.4 Immunomagnetic Separation Assays 258
12.3.5 Western Immunoblotting Assays 259
12.3.6 Immunoaffinity Chromatography Assays 260
12.3.7 Immunocytochemical Assays 261
12.3.8 Immunoprecipitation Assays 262
Questions and Problems 263
References and Recommended Readings 264
Chapter 13. Nucleic Acid–Based Methods of Analysis 266
13.1 Structure and Complementarity of Nucleic Acids 266
13.2 Obtaining Microbial Nucleic Acids from the Environment 268
13.2.1 Extraction of Nucleic Acids from Environmental Samples 268
13.3 Gene Probes and Probing 269
13.3.1 Colony Hybridization or Lifts 271
13.3.2 Southern and Northern Hybridizations 271
13.3.3 Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) 274
13.3.4 Microarrays 274
13.3.5 Phyloarrays 277
13.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction 277
13.4.1 The Steps of PCR 277
13.4.2 Design of Primers 281
13.4.3 PCR Detection of Specific and Universal Genes 281
13.4.4 RT-PCR 282
13.4.5 ICC-PCR 283
13.4.6 Seminested, Nested, and Multiplex PCR 284
13.4.7 PCR Fingerprinting 286
13.4.8 Real-time PCR 286
13.4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of PCR 289
13.5 Recombinant DNA Techniques 289
13.5.1 Cloning 289
13.5.2 Metagenomics 291
13.5.3 Sequence Analysis 293
13.5.4 Comparative Genomics 293
13.6 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis 294
13.6.1 Theory and Concept 294
13.6.2 RFLP Analysis of Whole Genomes 294
13.6.3 RFLP Analysis of PCR Sequences 295
13.6.4 Fluorescent Fragment Length Polymorphism Techniques 295
13.6.5 Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis 297
13.6.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of RFLP and PFGE Analyses 298
13.7 Denaturing/Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis 298
13.7.1 Theory and Concept 298
13.7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of DGGE/TGGE 299
13.8 Plasmid Analysis 300
13.8.1 Theory and Concept 300
13.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasmid Analyses 300
13.9 Reporter Genes 300
13.9.1 Theory and Concept 300
13.9.2 Specific Reporter Gene Systems 301
13.9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Reporter Genes 303
Questions and Problems 304
References and Recommended Readings 304
Part IV: Microbial Communication, Activities, and Interactions with Environment and Nutrient Cycling 308
Chapter 14. Biogeochemical Cycling 310
14.1 Introduction 310
14.1.1 Biogeochemical Cycles 310
14.1.2 Gaia Hypothesis 310
14.2 Carbon Cycle 312
14.2.1 Carbon Reservoirs 312
14.2.2 Carbon Fixation and Energy Flow 313
14.2.3 Carbon Respiration 313
14.3 Nitrogen Cycle 322
14.3.1 Nitrogen Reservoirs 323
14.3.2 Nitrogen Fixation 323
14.3.3 Ammonia Assimilation (Immobilization) and Ammonification (Mineralization) 325
14.3.4 Nitrification 328
14.3.5 Nitrate Reduction 329
14.4 Sulfur Cycle 332
14.4.1 Sulfur Reservoirs 333
14.4.2 Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction and Sulfur Mineralization 334
14.4.3 Sulfur Oxidation 334
14.4.4 Sulfur Reduction 336
14.5 Iron Cycle 337
14.5.1 Iron Reservoirs 337
14.5.2 Iron in Soils and Sediments 337
14.5.3 Iron in Marine Environments 338
14.5.4 Iron Oxidation 339
14.5.5 Iron Reduction 340
Questions and Problems 340
References and Recommended Readings 341
Chapter 15. Consequences of Biogeochemical Cycles Gone Wild 342
15.1 Introduction 342
15.2 Microbially Influenced Corrosion 343
15.2.1 Metal Corrosion 343
15.2.2 Microbially Induced Concrete Corrosion 345
15.3 Acid Mine Drainage and Metal Recovery 346
15.3.1 Acid Mine Drainage 346
15.3.2 Metal Recovery 348
15.3.3 Desulfurization of Coal 349
15.4 Biomethylation of Metals and Metalloids 349
15.5 Nitrous Oxide and Earth's Atmosphere 350
15.6 Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater 352
15.7 Composting 353
Questions and Problems 355
References and Recommended Readings 355
Chapter 16. Microbial Communication: Bacteria–Bacteria and Bacteria–Host 358
16.1 Introduction 358
16.2 Communication via Quorum Sensing in Gram-Negative Bacteria 359
16.2.1 N-Acyl Homoserine Lactones (AHLs) 359
16.2.2 Quorum Sensing in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a Ubiquitous Plant Pathogen 360
16.2.3 Quorum Sensing and Cross-Talk 362
16.3 Signaling in Gram-Positive Bacteria 363
16.3.1 & #947
16.3.2 Peptide Signaling 364
16.4 Other Types of Signaling 365
16.4.1 Autoinducers-2 and -3 365
16.4.2 Eavesdropping on the Party Line 365
16.4.3 Bacterial Communication Interference 366
16.4.4 Interkingdom Communication 367
16.4.5 Host–Bacterial Communication 368
16.5 Summary and Core Concepts 368
Questions and Problems 368
References and Recommended Readings 368
Chapter 17. Bacterial Communities in Natural Ecosystems 370
17.1 Bacterial Communities 370
17.2 Bacterial Diversity in Natural Systems 371
17.2.1 What is a Species? 371
17.2.2 Diversity in Soil 371
17.2.3 Diversity in the Ocean 372
17.3 Functional Diversity and the Resilience of Bacterial Communities 373
17.3.1 Soil Bacterial Communities 373
17.3.2 Soil–Plant–Microbe Interactions 374
17.4 Microbial Diversity and Natural Products 376
Questions and Problems 378
References and Recommended Readings 378
Chapter 18. Global Change and Microbial Infectious Disease 380
18.1 Environmental Human Pathogenic Microbes 380
18.1.1 Indigenous Pathogens of Soilborne Origin 382
18.1.2 Water-Based and Airborne Human Pathogenic Microbes 383
18.2 Routes of Exposure 383
18.2.1 What We Breathe 383
18.2.2 What We Eat 383
18.2.3 What We Drink 384
18.3 Environmental Change and Microbial Infectious Diseases 385
18.3.1 Global Climate Change and Microbial Infectious Disease 385
18.3.2 Urbanization and Deforestation 386
Questions and Problems 386
References and Recommended Readings 386
Chapter 19. Microbial Transport 388
19.1 Factors Affecting Microbial Transport 388
19.1.1 Microbial Filtration 389
19.1.2 Physiological State 389
19.1.3 Microbial Adhesion—The Influence of Cell Surface Properties 390
19.1.4 Impact of pH on Microbial Transport 394
19.1.5 Impact of Ionic Strength on Transport 394
19.1.6 Cellular Appendages 395
19.1.7 Hydrogeological Factors 396
19.1.8 Persistence and Activity of Introduced Microbes 398
19.2 Factors Affecting Transport of DNA 398
19.3 Novel Approaches to Facilitate Microbial Transport 399
19.3.1 Ultramicrobacteria 399
19.3.2 Surfactants 399
19.3.3 Gene Transfer 400
19.4 Microbial Transport Studies 400
19.4.1 Column Studies 400
19.4.2 Field Studies 401
19.4.3 Tracers 402
19.5 Models for Microbial Transport 403
19.5.1 Advection–Dispersion Models 403
19.5.2 Filtration Models 404
Questions and Problems 404
References and Recommended Readings 405
Part V: Remediation of Organic and Metal Pollutants 408
Chapter 20. Microorganisms and Organic Pollutants 410
20.1 Introduction 410
20.2 Environmental Law 411
20.3 The Overall Process of Biodegradation 413
20.4 Contaminant Structure, Toxicity, and Biodegradability 416
20.4.1 Genetic Potential 416
20.4.2 Toxicity 417
20.4.3 Bioavailability 417
20.4.4 Contaminant Structure 419
20.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Biodegradation 420
20.5.1 Redox Conditions 420
20.5.2 Organic Matter Content 421
20.5.3 Nitrogen 421
20.5.4 Other Environmental Factors 421
20.6 Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants 422
20.6.1 Pollutant Sources and Types 422
20.6.2 Aliphatics 425
20.7 Bioremediation 437
20.7.1 Addition of Oxygen or Other Gases 439
20.7.2 Nutrient Addition 440
20.7.3 Sequential Anaerobic-Aerobic Degradation 441
20.7.4 Addition of Surfactants 441
20.7.5 Addition of Microorganisms or DNA 441
Questions and Problems 442
References and Recommended Readings 442
Chapter 21. Microorganisms and Metal Pollutants 444
21.1 Metals in the Environment 444
21.2 Cause for Concern 445
21.3 Metals Defined 445
21.3.1 The Essential Metals 446
21.3.2 The Toxic Metals 446
21.3.3 The Nontoxic Nonessential Metals 446
21.4 Metal Sources 447
21.4.1 Anthropogenic Sources 447
21.4.2 Natural Sources 447
21.5 Metal Solubility, Bioavailability and Speciation 448
21.5.1 Metal Chemistry 449
21.5.2 Cation-Exchange Capacity 450
21.5.3 Redox Potential 450
21.5.4 pH 450
21.6 Metal Toxicity Effects on the Microbial Cell 450
21.7 Mechanisms of Microbial Metal Resistance and Detoxification 452
21.7.1 General Mechanisms of Metal Resistance 453
21.7.2 Metal-Dependent Mechanisms of Resistance 453
21.8 Methods for Studying Metal–Microbial Interactions 455
21.8.1 Culture Medium 455
21.8.2 Measurement of Total, Soluble, and Bioavailable Metal 456
21.9 Microbial Metal Transformations 457
21.9.1 Oxidation–Reduction 457
21.9.2 Methylation 458
21.10 Physicochemical Methods of Metal Remediation 458
21.11 Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils and Sediments 460
21.12 Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Aquatic Systems 461
Questions and Problems 462
References and Recommended Readings 463
Part VI: Water- and Foodborne Pathogens 466
Chapter 22. Environmentally Transmitted Pathogens 468
22.1 Environmentally Transmitted Pathogens 468
22.2 Bacteria 470
22.2.1 Salmonella 470
22.2.2 Escherichia coli and Shigella 471
22.2.3 Campylobacter 472
22.2.4 Yersinia 473
22.2.5 Vibrio 474
22.2.6 Helicobacter 475
22.2.7 Legionella 476
22.2.8 Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens 477
22.2.9 Blue-Green Algae 478
22.3 Parasitology 480
22.3.1 Protozoa 481
22.3.2 Nematodes 488
22.3.3 Cestodes (Taenia saginata) 490
22.3.4 Trematodes (Schistosoma mansoni) 490
22.4 Viruses 492
22.4.1 Enteric Viruses 492
22.4.2 Respiratory Viruses 498
22.5 Fate and Transport of Pathogens in the Environment 502
Questions and Problems 503
References and Recommended Readings 504
Chapter 23. Indicator Microorganisms 508
23.1 The Concept of Indicator Organisms 508
23.2 Total Coliforms 509
23.2.1 The Most Probable Number (MPN) Test 510
23.2.2 The Membrane Filter (MF) Test 510
23.2.3 The Presence–Absence (P–A) Test 510
23.3 Fecal Coliforms and Escherichia coli 513
23.4 Fecal Streptococci 513
23.5 Clostridium Perfringens 514
23.6 Heterotrophic Plate Count 514
23.7 Bacteriophage 515
23.8 Other Potential Indicator Organisms 516
23.9 Standards and Criteria for Indicators 517
23.10 Microbial Source Tracking 519
Questions and Problems 521
References and Recommended Readings 521
Part VII: Wastewater Treatment and Disinfection 524
Chapter 24. Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Reuse 526
24.1 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage) 526
24.2 Modern Wastewater Treatment 529
24.2.1 Primary Treatment 529
24.2.2 Secondary Treatment 529
24.2.3 Tertiary Treatment 534
24.2.4 Removal of Pathogens by Sewage Treatment Processes 534
24.2.5 Removal of Organics and Inorganics by Sewage Treatment Processes 536
24.3 Oxidation Ponds 536
24.4 Septic Tanks 538
24.5 Land Application of Wastewater 539
24.6 Wetlands and Aquaculture Systems 541
24.7 Sludge Processing 544
24.7.1 Stabilization Technologies 544
24.7.2 Sludge Processing to Produce Class A Biosolids 545
24.8 Land Application of Biosolids and Animal Wastes: An Historical Perspective and Current Outlook 546
24.8.1 Class A versus Class B Biosolids 546
24.9 Methods of Land Application of Biosolids 547
24.10 Pathogens of Concern in Class B Biosolids 547
24.10.1 Other Biological Concerns with Biosolids 548
24.10.2 Risks from Pathogens in Biosolids 550
24.11 Pathogens in Animal Manures 551
Questions and Problems 551
References and Additional Readings 552
Chapter 25. Drinking Water Treatment 554
25.1 Water Treatment Processes 554
25.2 Water Treatment Requirements 556
25.3 Water Distribution Systems 557
25.4 Organic Carbon and Microbial Growth in Distribution Systems 559
Questions and Problems 561
References and Recommended Readings 561
Chapter 26. Disinfection 562
26.1 Thermal Destruction 563
26.2 Kinetics of Disinfection 564
26.3 Factors Affecting Disinfectants 565
26.4 Halogens 568
26.4.1 Chlorine 568
26.4.2 Chloramines 568
26.4.3 Chlorine Dioxide 569
26.4.4 Bromine and Iodine 569
26.5 Ozone 570
26.6 Metal Ions 570
26.7 Ultraviolet Disinfection 571
26.8 Photodynamic Inactivation 573
26.9 Gamma and High-Energy Irradiation 573
Questions and Problems 574
References and Recommended Readings 574
Part VIII: Urban Microbiology 576
Chapter 27. Domestic and Indoor Microbiology 578
27.1 Household Sources of Pathogens 578
27.1.1 Air 578
27.1.2 Food 579
27.1.3 Water 579
27.2 Fomites: Role in Disease Spread 581
27.2.1 Occurrence of Pathogens on Fomites 582
27.2.2 Persistence of Pathogens on Fomites 582
27.3 Transfer of Pathogens 582
Questions and Problems 585
References and Recommended Readings 585
Chapter 28. Microorganisms and Bioterrorism 588
28.1 Microbial Agents of Concern as Weapons of Bioterrorism 589
28.2 Bioterrorism and Potable Water 591
28.2.1 Real-Time Monitoring in Water Distribution Systems 591
28.2.2 Real-Time Monitoring 592
28.2.3 Contaminant Transport Mechanisms and Water Quality Modeling 592
28.3 Bioterrorism and Agriculture 594
28.3.1 Contamination via Airborne Microbial Agents 594
28.3.2 Foot-and-Mouth Disease 597
28.4 Transmission by Fomites 597
References and Recommended Readings 597
Chapter 29. Risk Assessment 598
29.1 The Concept of Risk Assessment 598
29.2 Elements of Risk Assessment 598
29.3 The Process of Risk Assessment 600
29.3.1 Hazard Identification 600
29.3.2 Exposure Assessment 601
29.3.3 Dose–Response Assessment 602
29.3.4 Risk Characterization 603
29.4 Microbial Risk Assessment 604
Questions and Problems 609
References and Recommended Readings 610
Index 612
A 612
B 613
C 613
D 614
E 614
F 615
G 615
H 615
I 616
L 616
M 616
N 617
O 617
P 617
Q 618
R 618
S 619
T 620
U 620
V 620
W 621
X 621
Z 621