The book is mainly directed to undergraduate and graduate students in Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. It is also directed to new engineering college graduates who are starting their career in oil and gas industry. For experienced engineers and managers, this book is ideal for acquiring the necessary background in this area and following up with new topics in refining industry.
The book includes topics such as clean fuels, gasification, biofuels, automation, environmental impacts as well as planning and scheduling of refinery operations.
Throughout, the book provides numerous opportunities to put fundamental refining principles into practice.
- Provides balanced coverage of fundamental and operational topics
- Includes spreadsheets and process simulators for showing trends and simulation case studies
- Relates processing to planning and management ,to give an integrated picture of refining
Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining presents the fundamentals of thermodynamics and kinetics, and it explains the scientific background essential for understanding refinery operations. The text also provides a detailed introduction to refinery engineering topics, ranging from the basic principles and unit operations to overall refinery economics. The book covers important topics, such as clean fuels, gasification, biofuels, and environmental impact of refining, which are not commonly discussed in most refinery textbooks. Throughout the source, problem sets and examples are given to help the reader practice and apply the fundamental principles of refining. Chapters 1-10 can be used as core materials for teaching undergraduate courses. The first two chapters present an introduction to the petroleum refining industry and then focus on feedstocks and products. Thermophysical properties of crude oils and petroleum fractions, including processes of atmospheric and vacuum distillations, are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. Conversion processes, product blending, and alkylation are covered in chapters 5-10. The remaining chapters discuss hydrogen production, clean fuel production, refining economics and safety, acid gas treatment and removal, and methods for environmental and effluent treatments. This source can serve both professionals and students (on undergraduate and graduate levels) of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Chemistry, and Chemical Technology. Beginners in the engineering field, specifically in the oil and gas industry, may also find this book invaluable. Provides balanced coverage of fundamental and operational topics Includes spreadsheets and process simulators for showing trends and simulation case studies Relates processing to planning and management to give an integrated picture of refining
Front Cover 1
Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Preface 16
Chapter 1: Introduction 18
1.1. Introduction 18
1.2. Refining Processes 18
1.2.1. Physical Separation Processes 18
1.2.1.1. Crude Distillation 18
1.2.1.2. Solvent Deasphalting 19
1.2.1.3. Solvent Extraction 19
1.2.1.4. Solvent Dewaxing 20
1.2.2. Chemical Catalytic Conversion Processes 20
1.2.2.1. Catalytic Reforming 20
1.2.2.2. Hydrotreating 20
1.2.2.3. Catalytic Hydrocracking 20
1.2.2.4. Catalytic Cracking 20
1.2.2.5. Alkylation 20
1.2.2.6. Isomerization 21
1.2.3. Thermal Chemical Conversion Processes 21
1.2.3.1. Delayed Coking 21
1.2.3.2. Flexicoking 21
1.2.3.3. Visbreaking 21
1.3. Refinery Configuration 21
1.3.1. Type of Products 23
1.3.2. Environmental Regulation 23
1.3.3. Crude Assay and Quality 23
1.3.4. Refinery-petrochemical Integration 26
1.3.5. Development of New Technology 26
References 26
Chapter 2: Refinery Feedstocks and Products 28
2.1. Introduction 28
2.2. Composition of Crude Oils 28
2.2.1. Paraffins 29
2.2.2. Olefins 30
2.2.3. Naphthenes (cycloalkanes) 31
2.2.4. Aromatics 31
2.2.5. Sulphur Compounds 33
2.2.6. Oxygen Compounds 34
2.2.7. Nitrogen Compounds 35
2.2.8. Metallic Compounds 36
2.2.9. Asphaltenes and Resins 36
2.3. Products Composition 37
2.3.1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 38
2.3.2. Gasoline 38
2.3.3. Kerosene 39
2.3.4. Jet Fuel 39
2.3.5. Diesel Fuel 39
2.3.6. Fuel Oil 39
2.3.7. Residual Fuel Oil 40
2.3.8. Lube Oil 40
2.3.9. Asphalt 40
2.3.10. Petroleum Coke 40
2.4. Physical Property Characterization Data 40
2.4.1. Fractionation 40
2.4.2. True Boiling Point Distillation 40
2.4.3. ASTM Distillation 41
2.4.4. Simulated Distillation by Gas Chromatography 41
2.4.5. API Gravity 41
2.4.6. Pour Point 42
2.4.7. Viscosity 42
2.4.8. Refractive Index 42
2.4.9. Freezing Point 42
2.4.10. Aniline Point 42
2.4.11. Flash Point 43
2.4.12. Octane Number 43
2.4.13. Cetane Number 43
2.4.14. Smoke Point 43
2.4.15. Reid Vapour Pressure 44
2.4.16. Water, Salt and Sediment 44
2.4.17. Molecular Weight 44
2.5. Chemical Analysis Data 44
2.5.1. Elemental Analysis 44
2.5.2. Carbon Residue 45
2.5.3. Detailed Hydrocarbon Analysis 45
2.5.4. Hydrocarbon Family Analysis 45
2.5.5. Aromatic Carbon Content 45
2.5.6. SARA Analysis 46
References 48
Chapter 3: Thermophysical Properties of Petroleum Fractions and Crude Oils 50
3.1. Introduction 50
3.2. Basic Input Data 51
3.2.1. Specific Gravity 51
3.2.2. Boiling Point Curves 52
3.2.3. ASTM Distillation 52
3.2.4. True Boiling Point Distillation 53
3.2.5. Conversion between ASTM and TBP Distillation 53
3.3. Pseudo-Components 57
3.3.1. Breakup of TBP Curve into Pseudo-components 58
3.3.2. Breakup of TBP Curve into Pseudo-componentsUsing Generalized Form 60
3.3.3. Calculation of Pseudo-components Specific Gravities 64
3.4. Thermophysical Properties Calculation 65
3.4.1. Molecular Weight 65
3.4.2. Viscosity 66
3.4.3. Refractive Index 66
3.4.4. Molecular Type Composition of Petroleum Fractions 67
3.4.5. Pseudo-critical Constants and Acentric Factors 69
3.4.5.1. Pseudo-critical Temperature 70
3.4.5.2. Pseudo-critical Pressure 70
3.4.5.3. Acentric Factor 70
3.4.6. Generalized Equation for Thermophysical Properties 71
3.5. Calculation of Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions 72
3.6. Estimation of Properties Related to Phase Changes 75
3.6.1. Cubic Equations of State 75
3.6.2. Vapour–liquid Equilibrium 76
3.7. Calculating Properties Utilizing UNISIM Software 81
Questions and Problems 83
References 84
Chapter 4: Crude Distillation 86
4.1. Introduction 86
4.2. Process Description 87
4.3. Operation of Crude Distillation Units 89
4.3.1. Fractionation 89
4.3.1.1. Cut Points 91
4.3.1.2. Degree of Fractionation 91
4.3.2. Overflash 91
4.3.3. Column Pressure 92
4.3.4. Overhead Temperature 92
4.3.5. Pre-flash Columns and Crude Column Capacity 93
4.4. Crude Oil Desalting 93
4.4.1. Types of Salts in Crude Oil 93
4.4.2. Desalting Process 94
4.4.3. Description of Desalter 95
4.4.4. Desalter Operating Variables 96
4.5. Vacuum Distillation 97
4.5.1. Process Description 98
4.6. Crude Distillation Material Balance 99
4.6.1. Crude Assay Data 99
4.6.2. Material Balance 102
4.6.3. Sulphur Material Balance 103
4.7. Design of Crude Distillation Units Using Process Simulators 105
Questions and Problems 109
References 110
Chapter 5: Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization 112
5.1. Introduction 112
5.2. Catalytic Reforming 112
5.2.1. Reformer Feed Characterization 112
5.2.2. Role of Reformer in the Refinery and Feed Preparation 113
5.2.3. Research Octane Number 113
5.2.4. Reforming Reactions 115
5.2.4.1. Naphthene Dehydrogenation of Cyclohexanes 115
5.2.4.2. Paraffin Dehydrogenation 115
5.2.4.3. Dehydrocyclization 115
5.2.4.4. Isomerization 115
5.2.4.5. Hydrocracking Reactions 116
5.2.4.6. Coke Deposition 116
5.2.5. Thermodynamics of Reforming Reactions 116
5.2.6. Reaction Kinetics and Catalysts 119
5.2.7. Process Technology 119
5.2.7.1. Semi-regenerative Fixed Bed Process 119
5.2.7.2. Continuous Regenerative (moving bed) CCR PlatformingUOP Process 123
5.2.8. Material Balance in Reforming 123
5.2.8.1. Material Balance Using Emperical Correlations 123
5.2.8.2. Material Balance Using Conversion Criteria 123
5.2.9. Process Simulation of Reformer by Equilibrium Reactions 123
5.3. Isomerization of Light Naphtha 135
5.3.1. Thermodynamics of Isomerization 135
5.3.2. Isomerization Reactions 136
5.3.3. Isomerization Catalysts 136
5.3.3.1. Standard Isomerization Catalyst 137
5.3.3.2. Zeolite Catalyst 137
5.3.4. Isomerization Yields 137
Questions and Problems 138
References 139
Chapter 6: Thermal Cracking and Coking 140
6.1. Introduction 140
6.2. Coke Formation 140
6.3. Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons 142
6.4. Visbreaking 143
6.4.1. Feed Sources 144
6.4.2. Visbreaking Reactions 144
6.4.3. Visbreaking Severity 144
6.4.4. Kinetics of Visbreaking 144
6.4.5. Product Yield and Properties 145
6.4.6. Prediction of Visbreaking Yields 145
6.4.7. Process Description 148
6.4.7.1. Coil Visbreaker 148
6.4.7.2. Soaker Visbreaker 149
6.5. Delayed Coking 150
6.5.1. Role of Delayed Coker 150
6.5.2. Process Description 151
6.5.3. Delayed Coking Variables 153
6.5.4. Types of Coke and their Properties 154
6.5.5. Coking and Decoking Operation 155
6.5.6. Delayed Coker Yield Prediction 157
6.5.7. Process Simulation of Delayed Coking 159
6.6. Fluid Coking 161
6.7. Flexicoking 164
6.7.1. Yield Correlations for Flexicoking 164
Questions and Problems 168
References 169
Chapter 7: Hydroconversion 170
7.1. Introduction 170
7.2. Hydrotreating 170
7.2.1. Objectives of Hydrotreating 170
7.2.2. Role of Hydrotreating 170
7.2.3. Chemistry of Hydrotreating 172
7.2.4. Hydrotreating Catalysts 174
7.2.5. Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating 175
7.2.6. Reaction Kinetics 179
7.2.7. Hydrotreating Processes 181
7.2.7.1. Naphtha Hydrotreating 181
7.2.7.2. Middle Distillates Hydrotreating 183
7.2.7.3. Atmospheric Residue Desulphurization 184
7.2.8. Make-up Hydrogen 187
7.2.9. Operating Conditions 188
7.2.10. Hydrotreating Correlations 188
7.2.10.1. Naphtha and Gas Oil Hydrotreating Correlations 188
7.2.10.2. Middle Distillate Hydrotreating Correlations 192
7.2.10.3. Atmospheric Residue Desulphurization (ARDS) 193
7.2.11. Simulation of ARDS Unit 193
7.3. Hydrocracking 197
7.3.1. Role of Hydrocracking in the Refinery 197
7.3.2. Feeds and Products 197
7.3.3. Hydrocracking Chemistry 197
7.3.4. Hydrocracking Catalysts 199
7.3.5. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking 202
7.3.5.1. Thermodynamics 202
7.3.6. Hydrocracking Processes 203
7.3.7. Process Configuration 205
7.3.8. Hydrocracking Severity 206
7.3.9. Catalytic Dewaxing 207
7.3.10. Hydrocracking Correlations 209
7.3.10.1. Yield Correlations 209
7.3.10.2. Maximum ATK Correlations 209
7.3.11. Simulation of Hydrocracking Units 211
Question and Problems 214
References 215
Chapter 8: Fluidised Catalytic Cracking 216
8.1. Introduction 216
8.2. Role of FCC in the Refinery 216
8.3. Feedstock and Products 217
8.4. Fluidisation 219
8.5. FCC Reactions 219
8.5.1. Primary Reactions 221
8.5.2. Secondary Reactions 222
8.6. Thermodynamics of FCC Reactions 223
8.7. FCC Catalyst 225
8.7.1. Zeolite 225
8.7.2. Matrix 226
8.8. FCC Configuration 226
8.9. Process Description 227
8.10. Modes of Fluidisation in FCC unit 229
8.11. FCC Yield Correlations 229
8.12. Material and Energy Balances 233
8.12.1. Material Balance 233
8.12.1.1. Reactor Material Balance 233
8.12.1.2. Regenerator Material Balance 234
8.12.2. Energy Balance 234
8.12.2.1. Reactor Heat Balance 234
8.12.2.2. Regenerator Heat Balance 235
8.13. Kinetic Model for FCC Reactor 236
8.14. Concentration and Temperature Profiles in the Riser 239
8.15. Simulation of FCC unit 244
8.16. New Technology 247
8.16.1. Deep Catalytic Cracking 247
8.16.2. Catalytic Pyrolysis Process 247
8.16.3. Petro-FCC 248
Questions and Problems 249
References 251
Chapter 9: Product Blending 254
9.1. Introduction 254
9.2. Reid Vapour Pressure Blending 255
9.3. Flash Point Blending 257
9.4. Pour Point Blending 259
9.5. Cloud Point Blending 261
9.6. Aniline Point Blending 262
9.7. Smoke Point Blending 263
9.8. Viscosity Blending 264
9.9. Gasoline Octane Number Blending 265
9.10. Linear Programming (LP) For Blending 271
Questions and Problems 276
References 278
Chapter 10: Alkylation 280
10.1. Introduction 280
10.2. Role of Alkylation and Polymerization Units in the Refinery 280
10.3. Alkylation Processes 280
10.3.1. Sulphuric Acid Alkylation Process 281
10.3.2. Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation 284
10.3.3. Solid Catalyst Alkylation 284
10.3.4. AlkyClean Process 285
10.4. Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation 286
10.4.1. Effect of Operating Conditions 289
10.4.1.1. Olefin Type 289
10.4.1.2. Isobutane Concentration 290
10.4.1.3. Acid Strength 290
10.4.1.4. Degree of Agitation 290
10.4.1.5. Space Velocity 291
10.4.1.6. Reaction Temperature 291
10.5. Performance of Alkylation Process 292
10.6. Material Balance Calculations Using Yield Factors 294
10.7. Simulation of the Alkylation Process 296
Questions and Problems 299
References 300
Chapter 11: Hydrogen Production 302
11.1. Introduction 302
11.2. Hydrogen Requirements in Modern Refineries 302
11.3. Steam Reforming 303
11.3.1. Flow Process 303
11.3.2. Feed Preparation 305
11.3.3. Steam Reforming Reactions 305
11.3.4. Thermodynamics of Steam Reforming 306
11.3.5. Operating Variables (Crew and Shumake, 2006) 310
11.3.5.1. Steam to Carbon Ratio 310
11.3.5.2. Reformer Inlet Temperature 310
11.3.5.3. Reformer Outlet Temperature 310
11.3.5.4. Reaction Pressure 310
11.3.5.5. Feed Type 311
11.3.5.6. Space Velocity 311
11.3.5.7. Catalyst Activity 311
11.3.6. Reformer Process Simulation 311
11.4. Product Purification 313
11.4.1. High-Temperature Shift Converter 313
11.4.2. Low-Temperature Shift Converter 314
11.4.3. Carbon Dioxide Removal 314
11.4.3.1. Amine Treating 314
11.4.3.2. Methanation 315
11.4.3.3. Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) 316
11.5. New Developments in Steam Reforming 317
Questions and Problems 318
References 318
Chapter 12: Clean Fuels 320
12.1. Introduction 320
12.2. Specifications of Clean Fuels 320
12.3. Production of Clean Fuels from Crude Oil 322
12.3.1. Deep Desulphurization 322
12.3.1.1. Deep Hydrodesulphurization (DHDS) 325
12.3.1.2. Deep Non-Hydrodesulphurization (DNHDS) 327
12.4. Production of Clean Fuels from Natural Gas and Coal 330
12.4.1. Synthesis Gas Production 332
12.5. Production of Clean Fuels from Biological Sources (Biofuels) 334
12.5.1. Bio-diesel 336
12.5.2. Ethanol and Methanol 337
12.5.3. Bio-Fuel from Flash Pyrolysis 338
12.5.4. Bio-Fuel from Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU) 339
12.5.5. Gasification Routes 339
Questions and Problems 340
References 341
Chapter 13: Residue Upgrading 342
13.1. Introduction 342
13.2. Upgrading Options 343
13.3. Non-catalytic Residue Upgrading Processes 344
13.3.1. Solvent Deasphalting 344
13.3.1.1. Correlations for Solvent Deasphalting 349
13.3.2. Thermal Processes 350
13.3.2.1. Coking 350
13.3.2.2. Gasification 350
13.4. Catalytic Processes 355
13.4.1. Residue-fluidized Catalytic Cracking 355
13.4.2. Hydroprocessing 359
13.4.2.1. Fixed Bed Process 361
13.4.2.2. Moving Bed Process 361
13.4.2.3. Ebullated Bed Process 364
13.4.2.4. Slurry Bed Process 365
13.4.3. Aquaconversion 365
Questions and Problems 370
References 371
Chapter 14: Safety in Petroleum Refineries 374
14.1. Introduction 374
14.2. Hazards in Refinery Units 374
14.2.1. Crude Oil Pre-treatment 374
14.2.2. Crude Oil Distillation 374
14.2.3. Catalytic Reforming 375
14.2.4. Thermal Cracking 375
14.2.5. Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking 375
14.2.6. Fluid Catalytic Cracking 375
14.2.7. Alkylation 376
14.2.8. Hydrogen Production 376
14.3. Safety Programs and Regulations 376
14.4. Accidents and Loss Prevention Measures 376
14.5. Risk Management and Risk Assessment 377
14.6. Fire and Explosions 380
14.7. Hazard Analysis 382
14.7.1. Worst Case Scenario 382
14.7.2. Fault Tree Analysis 383
14.7.3. HAZOP Case Study 385
14.8. Safety Considerations in Plant Layout 387
14.9. Safe Operation Systems 388
14.9.1. Pressure Relief Systems 389
14.9.2. Flare Relief System 389
14.9.3. Air Emission Monitoring 390
14.9.4. Water Emission Monitoring 390
14.9.5. Solid Waste Monitoring 390
14.10. Emergency Alarms 391
14.11. Noise in Refinery 391
Questions and Problems 392
References 393
Chapter 15: Acid Gas Processing and Mercaptans Removal 394
15.1. Introduction 394
15.2. Absorption of Acid Gases 394
15.2.1. Chemical Solvents 396
15.2.1.1. Amine Process 396
15.2.1.2. Carbonate Process 405
15.2.2. Physical Solvents 406
15.2.2.1. Selexol Process 407
15.2.2.2. Morphysorb Process 408
15.2.3. Membrane Absorption 409
15.3. Sulphur Recovery 410
15.3.1. Claus Process 410
15.3.2. Tail Gas Clean Up 414
15.4. Mercaptans Removal 414
15.4.1. Gasoline MEROX 416
15.4.2. Kerosene MEROX 417
Question and Problems 417
References 418
Chapter 16: Refinery Economics 420
16.1. Introduction 420
16.2. Refining Capacity 420
16.3. Refining Costs 421
16.3.1. Capital Costs 421
16.3.2. Operating Costs 422
16.3.2.1. Variable Cost 422
16.3.2.2. Fixed Cost 422
16.3.3. Factors Affecting Refinery Costs 423
16.4. Refining Margins 425
16.5. Refinery Complexity 426
16.6. Economic Analysis 427
16.6.1. Cash Flow Diagram 427
16.6.2. Time Value of Money 428
16.6.3. Inflation 430
16.6.4. Taxation and After-tax Cash Flow 431
16.6.5. Profitability and Project Evaluation 431
16.6.6. Case Study: Refinery Economic Evaluation 433
16.7. Global Trends 435
Questions and Problems 436
References 438
Chapter 17: Environmental Aspects in Refining 440
17.1. Introduction 440
17.2. Wastes in Refinery Units 440
17.2.1. Desalter 440
17.2.2. Crude Distillation 441
17.2.4. Thermal Cracking and Coking 441
17.2.5. Hydrocracking 442
17.2.6. Hydrotreating 442
17.2.7. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) 442
17.2.8. Alkylation 443
17.2.9. Asphalt Production, Solvent Extraction and Dewaxing 443
17.2.10. Hydrogen Production 443
17.3. Waste Management 444
17.3.1. Gas Waste 444
17.3.1.1. Emission Estimation 445
17.3.1.2. Treatment and Control 456
17.3.2. Wastewater 462
17.3.2.1. Emission Estimation 462
17.3.2.2. Treatment and Control 465
17.3.3. Solid Waste 469
Questions and Problems 470
References 471
Chapter 18: Overall Refinery Case Study 474
18.1. Introduction 474
18.2. The Case Study 474
Appendices: Appendix A 482
A. Conversion Factors 482
Appendix B 486
B. Definition of Terms 486
Appendix C 492
C. Process Simulator (UNISIM) Manual 492
Reference 500
Appendix D 502
D. Research Octane Number for Hydrocarbons (Antos et al., 1995) 502
Reference 503
Notation 504
Index 510
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 19.11.2009 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Sachbuch/Ratgeber |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie ► Technische Chemie | |
| Technik ► Bauwesen | |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-093156-1 / 0080931561 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-093156-2 / 9780080931562 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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