Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial and Military Sources (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Preface to the Fourth Edition 12
Preface to the Third Edition 16
Preface to the Second Edition 20
Preface to the First Edition 22
Acronyms 24
Chapter 1. Introduction 28
The Early History of Radioactivity 29
The Nuclear Energy Industry 32
Early Studies of Radioactive Contamination of the Environment 34
Chapter 2. The Biological Basis of Radiation Protection 37
Early Knowledge of Radiation Effects 37
Summary of Present Knowledge of Radiation Effects on Humans 40
Chapter 3. Radiation Protection Standards 66
Evolution of Radiation Dose Standards 67
Changes in Concepts of Standards Setting 82
Organizations Involved in Establishing and Implementing Radiation Protection Standards 85
Chapter 4. Atmospheric Pathways 90
Properties of the Atmosphere 90
Deposition and Resuspension 109
Tropospheric and Stratospheric Behavior 112
Chapter 5. Terrestrial and Aquatic Pathways 115
The Food Chain from Soil to Humans 116
Transport in Groundwater Systems 140
Transport in Surface Water Systems 142
Chapter 6. Natural Radioactivity 161
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Substances 162
Natural Radioactivity in Phosphate Fertilizers 199
Natural Radioactivity in Building Materials 201
Natural Radioactivity in Fossil Fuels 202
Induced Radionuclides 207
Natural Sources of External Ionizing Radiation 209
Technological Developments That Increase Human Exposure 217
Areas Having Unusually High Natural Radioactivity 218
Summary of Human Exposures to Natural Ionizing Radiation 227
Chapter 7. Production and Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuels 228
Uranium 228
Thorium 244
Average Doses from the Production and Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuels 245
Chapter 8. Power Reactors 246
Some Physical Aspects of Reactor Design and Operation 249
Types of Reactors 256
Low-Level Discharges from Light-Water Reactors 259
Reactor Accidents 271
Chapter 9. Nuclear Weapons 293
Physical Aspects of Nuclear Explosions 298
Short-Term Radiological Effects of Nuclear War 312
Some Problems of Recovery from Nuclear Attack 317
Worldwide Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests 318
Behavior of Individual Radionuclides from Fallout 324
Lung Dose Due to Inhalation of Dust from Weapons Tests 341
External Radiation 341
Chapter 10. Various Other Sources of Exposure 343
The Early History of Radium 344
Exposure from Radioluminescent Paints 345
Uranium and Thorium in Ceramics and Glass 346
Depleted Uranium Projectiles 347
Thorium in Gas Mantles 348
Thorium in Welding Rods 348
Use of Specific Radionuclides ("Isotopes") in Research and Industry 349
Americium-241 in Smoke Detectors 350
Radionuclides as Sources of Power 352
Transportation of Radioactive Substances 355
Summary of Doses Received from Various Sources 360
Chapter 11. Radioactive Waste Management 361
Low-Level Wastes 363
High-Level Wastes 372
Proposed Repositories in the United States 393
The Special Problems of Gaseous or Highly Soluble Long- Lived Radionuclides 400
Chapter 12. Experience with Radioactive Contamination Due to Accidents 405
Fallout from the Thermonuclear Weapons Test of March 1, 1954 406
The Accident at the Windscale Reactor Number One, October 1957 414
The Houston Incident of March 1957 420
The Oak Ridge Plutonium Release of November 1959 422
The Army Stationary Low-Power Reactor (SL-1), January 1961 425
Abortive Reentry of the SNAP 9A, April 1964 426
Reentry of the Satellite Cosmos 954, January 1978 428
The Accident at Three Mile Island Unit 2, March 1979 429
The Chernobyl Accident, April 1986 436
Other Contaminating Events That Occurred in the Former Soviet Union 452
Accidents Involving Military Aircraft Carrying Nuclear Weapons 456
Accidents Involving Abandoned, Lost, or Stolen Gamma-Radiation Sources 460
Chapter 13. Methods of Environmental Surveillance 465
Design Phase 469
Operational Phase 470
Environmental Surveillance under Emergency Conditions 494
Chapter 14. Radiological Assessment and Its Application to Dose Reconstruction 497
Radiological Assessment 498
Dose Reconstruction 502
Events Leading to the Need for Dose Reconstructions 506
Summary of Dose Reconstruction Projects at U.S. Nuclear Weapons Plants 510
Chapter 15. Remediation of Contaminated Sites 521
Examples of U.S. Standards for Cleanup 522
Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and the Public 524
The Remediation Process 525
Remediation Measures and Technology 527
Sites Predating World War II 529
Sites Related to the Development of Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Weapons 531
Some Concluding Remarks 548
Chapter 16. Radiation Exposure and Risks: Some Contemporary Social Aspects 549
The Occupational Safety Record of the U.S. Nuclear Energy Program 551
Sources of Exposure of the General Population 554
The Disparity between Actual and Perceived Risk 557
Evolution of the Modern Environmental Movement 558
Public Perception of Technology 568
The Positive Side of Popular Environmentalism 571
What about the Future of Nuclear Energy? 572
Appendix: The Properties of Certain Radionuclides 574
References 596
Index 668