River Ecosystem Ecology (eBook)

Front Cover 1
River Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective 4
Copyright Page 5
Editor 6
Contributors 8
Contents 10
Introduction to River Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective 12
References 12
Physical and Chemical Processes Influencing Rivers 14
Physical Properties of Water 14
Introduction 14
Density 14
Heat Capacity/Specific Heat 16
Heat of Fusion/Melting 17
Heat of Vaporization/Condensation 17
Isotopes 18
Sublimation 18
Surface Tension and Cohesiveness 18
Viscosity 19
Colligative Properties 19
Further Reading 20
Chemical Properties of Water 21
Introduction 21
The Structure of Water 21
Solvation by Water 24
The Reactivity of Water 25
Trends and Patterns in Limnology 26
Dissolved Gases 26
Major Ions 27
Nutrients 27
Conclusion 28
Further Reading 28
Relevant Websites 28
Hydrological Cycle and Water Budgets 29
Introduction 29
Hydrological Cycle 29
Hydrological Cycle: Lithospheric Components 29
Surface water 29
Soil water 31
Groundwater 31
Nutrient Cycling and Energy Balance 31
Summary 32
Water Budgets 32
Framework 32
Assessment of Components 33
Evapotranspiration 33
Soil-water storage 33
Groundwater storage 34
Groundwater runoff 34
Two Examples 34
Global water balance 34
California 34
Epilogue 35
Further Reading 35
Hydrology: Streams 36
Introduction 36
Spatial Organization of Streams in Drainage Networks 36
Sources of Flow in Streams 37
Movement of Water into Stream Channels 38
Movement of Sediment into Stream Channels 40
Characteristics of Flow in Streams 41
Glossary 43
Further Reading 44
Relevant Websites 44
Hydrology: Rivers 45
What is a River? 45
Hydrology and Geomorphology 45
Water Sources and Discharge 45
Flooding 46
Water Movement 47
Geomorphology 48
Water Regulation 49
Water Quality 50
Particulate Matter 50
Dissolved Substances 50
Nutrients 51
Dissolved Gases 51
Pollutants 52
Biology of Rivers 52
Primary Producers 52
Invertebrates 53
Fishes 54
River Food Webs 54
Global Biogeochemical Cycling 55
Glossary 56
Further Reading 56
Geomorphology of Streams and Rivers 57
Watersheds and River Networks 57
River Profile 57
Particulate Material Transport in River Channels 57
Hydraulics of River Flow and Bankfull Discharge 57
Bankfull Discharge 58
Suspended Load and Bedload Transport 58
Channel Morphology and Channel Adaptations 59
Channel Morphology 59
Discrimination between Geomorphic Patterns: Succession of Patterns along the River Continuum 62
Channel Adjustments and Channel Metamorphosis 62
Bedrock Channels 64
Further Reading 65
Currents in Rivers 66
Introduction 66
Controlling Factors and Classifications of Currents 66
Currents in Fluvial Channels 67
Secondary Currents 68
Structure of Currents at River Confluences 69
Currents at Engineering Structures 70
Navigation-Induced Currents 71
Nomenclature 72
Further Reading 73
Relevant Websites 73
Hydrodynamical Modeling 74
Introduction 74
Dimensionality and Capabilities 74
Boundary and Initial Conditions 76
Calibration 78
Hydrostatic Approximation 78
Model Grid 78
Overview 78
Grid Size and Convergence 81
Horizontal Grid Systems 81
Vertical Grid Systems 83
Time Step 84
Numerical Methods 84
Order of Accuracy 85
Model Errors 85
Modeling Turbulence and Mixing 85
Similarities and Differences between Lake and River Modeling 86
Summary and Future Directions 86
Further Reading 88
Floods 89
Definition of Flood 89
Causes and Effects of Floods 89
Flood Costs and Mitigation 91
Further Reading 92
Ecology of Flowing Waters 94
Streams and Rivers as Ecosystems 94
Stream Ecosystem Definition 94
Stream versus Lake Ecosystems 95
Ecosystem Boundaries and the Structural Components of Streams 96
Ecosystem Metabolism: Energy Flow 97
Longitudinal Patterns 99
Ecosystem Metabolism: Biogeochemistry 99
Temporal Change 100
Conceptual Horizons 100
Glossary 101
Further Reading 101
Algae of River Ecosystems 102
Introduction 102
Factors Affecting Algae in Rivers 102
Local Abiotic Factors 103
Resources 103
Stressors 105
Local Biotic Factors 106
Habitat-Scale Factors 107
Reach to Regional Scale Factors 108
Summary 109
Further Reading 110
Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, Small Streams 111
Introduction 111
Diversity of Benthic Invertebrates in Small Streams 111
Quantitative Measurements of Benthic Invertebrates in Headwater Streams 112
Comparison of Secondary Productivity Measurements from Small Streams 112
Factors that Influence Invertebrates in Small Streams 115
Ecological Roles of Invertebrates in Small Streams 118
Anthropogenic and Natural Disturbances to Invertebrate Productivity in Small Streams 122
Invasive Species 122
Agriculture 122
Urbanization and Roads 122
Forestry Practices 126
Mining 126
Recreational Activities 126
Global Climate Change 126
Wildfire 127
Summary and Knowledge Gaps 127
Further Reading 127
Relevant Websites 128
Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, River and Floodplain Ecosystems 129
Introduction 129
Channel Habitats 129
Stable Substrates 129
Unstable Substrates 131
Floodplain Habitats 132
Hydrology 133
Hydrology and Vertebrate Predators 135
Vegetation 135
Threats to River-Floodplain Invertebrates 137
Further Reading 138
Relevant Websites 138
Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, Tropical Stream Ecosystems 139
Introduction 139
Stream Invertebrates 139
Noninsect Macrofauna 139
Porifera 139
Cnidaria 139
Polyzoa (Bryozoa) 140
Platyhelminthes 140
Nemertea 141
Nematomorpha 141
Nematoda 141
Annelida 141
Mollusca 143
Arthropoda 148
Insect Communities 150
Glossary 153
Further Reading 153
Relevant Websites 154
Benthic Invertebrate Fauna 155
Introduction 155
The Physical and Chemical Context 155
The Biotic Context 160
Types and Classification of Benthic Invertebrates 160
Ecological Role of Benthic Invertebrates 164
Secondary Production and Dispersal 165
Major Paradigms and Concepts 166
Use of Benthic Invertebrates in Applied Freshwater Biology 168
Summary 169
Glossary 169
Further Reading 170
Biological Interactions in River Ecosystems 171
Introduction 171
Energy Resources in River Ecosystems 171
Food Web Dynamics 172
Structure and Function of Lotic Ecosystems 175
The River Continuum Concept: A Model 175
Other Ecosystem Concepts 177
Glossary 178
Further Reading 178
Regulators of Biotic Processes in Stream and River Ecosystems 179
Introduction: Downstream Changes and Dynamics in River Environments 179
Changes in Communities over Time: Disturbance and Succession 179
Changes in Interactions across Space: Depth Zonation 181
Changes in Interactions across Space: Position in the Drainage Network 182
Changes in Biomass Distribution and Elemental Fluxes Mediated by Interactions and Movements of River Organisms 183
Forecasting Ecological Change in River Networks 184
Glossary 185
Further Reading 185
Ecology and Role of Headwater Streams 186
Introduction 186
Streams in the Landscape 186
Linkages to the Watershed 186
Formation and Importance of Drainage Networks 186
Geomorphology 187
Streams as Habitat 188
Physical Challenges to Biota 188
Connectivity as an Organizing Feature 189
Stream Biogeochemistry 189
Integrators of Watershed Processes 189
Pipes, Vents or Ecosystems? 190
Streams as Indicators of Ecosystem Health 192
Geomorphology 192
Nutrients 192
Biota 193
Further Reading 193
Riparian Zones 195
Introduction 195
Riparian Zones as Focal Points for Biodiversity 195
Riparian Zones as Buffers against Nutrient Pollution from Upland Runoff 198
Riparian Zones as Buffers against High In- Stream Nutrient Levels 199
Riparian Zones as Buffers against Suspended Sediments 199
Riparian Zones as Sources of Energy for Adjoining Aquatic Systems 200
Large Animal Influences on Riparian Zones 201
Pacific Salmon Influences on Riparian Zones 201
Conclusions 201
Further Reading 202
Flood Plains 203
Examples of Floodplain Environments 203
Geomorphological Processes on Flood Plains 203
Hydrology 205
Floodplain Lakes 208
Remote Sensing of Flood Plains 209
Functions of Flood plains 209
Human Modification of Floodplain Hydrology 210
Further Reading 210
Coarse Woody Debris in Lakes and Streams 212
Introduction 212
Sources of Coarse Woody Debris to Aquatic Ecosystems 212
Loss of Coarse Woody Debris from Aquatic Systems 213
Physical and Hydraulic Role of Coarse Woody Debris 214
Nutrient Properties and Primary Production Associated with Coarse Woody Debris 215
Coarse Woody Debris and Secondary Production 216
Coarse Woody Debris and Fishes 216
Coarse Woody Debris and Other Organisms 217
Riparian Forest/Coarse Woody Debris/Aquatic Food Web Models 218
Ecosystem-Scale Coarse Woody Debris Experiments 218
Temporal Dynamics and Coarse Woody Debris Restoration 219
Further Reading 220
Relevant Websites 220
Wetlands of Large Rivers: Flood Plains 221
Wetlands on Flood Plains 221
Images and Photos of Floodplain Environments 221
Distribution and Extent 221
Regimes of Flooding and Drying 222
Primary and Secondary Production 222
Biodiversity 223
Biotic Adaptations 223
Human Impacts on Floodplain Wetlands 223
Further Reading 224
Models of Ecological Processes in Riverine Ecosystems 225
Caveat Emptor 225
Four Dimensions and Hierarchy Theory 225
Hierarchy Theory 225
Longitudinal Perspectives 225
River Continuum Concept 226
Serial Discontinuity Concept 227
Network Dynamics Hypothesis 227
Hydrogeomorphic Patches and the Riverine Ecosystem Synthesis 227
MacroHabitat Structure 229
Natural Flow Regime 229
Food Webs 229
Flood Pulse Concept 229
Riverine Productivity Model 230
Food Web Complexity and Food Chain Length 230
Regulation of Community Structure 230
Equilibrial (Deterministic) vs Non-Equilbrial (Stochastic) States 230
Competition and Predation Models 230
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 231
Hierarchical Patch Dynamics 231
Functional Processes in Riverine Ecosystems 231
Glossary 231
Further Reading 232
Human Impacts on Streams and Rivers 234
Deforestation and Nutrient Loading to Fresh Waters 234
Introduction 234
Factors Controlling Nutrient Loading in Fresh Waters 234
Dissolved Nutrients 234
Nutrients in Particulate Form 234
Effects of Deforestation on the Factors Controlling Freshwater Nutrient Loads 240
Dissolved Nutrients 240
Effects on geological weathering 240
Effects on atmospheric precipitation/climate 240
Effects on precipitation chemistry and acidity 240
Effects on hydrology 240
Effects on temperature 241
Effects on terrestrial biological processes 241
Chemical uptake 241
Chemical transformations 241
Production of soluble chemicals 242
Effects on physical-chemical reactions in the soil 242
Effects on processes within aquatic ecosystems 243
Other factors contributing to the variable effects of deforestation on nutrient loading 243
Nutrients in Particulate Form 245
Effects on Watershed Topography, Soil Erodibility, Precipitation Characteristics, and Watershed Susceptibility to Mass Wasting 245
Effects on Stream-Channel Characteristics 245
Effects on Proximity of Vegetation to Surface Water 245
Effects on Extent of Roading 246
Conclusions 248
Knowledge Gaps 248
General Effects of Deforestation on Freshwater Nutrient Loading 249
Further Reading 249
Relevant Websites 249
Agriculture 250
Introduction 250
Nutrient Loss and Fertilization Practices 250
Nutrients and Sediments in Agricultural Landscapes 252
Coastal Waters and Aquaculture 255
Changes in Biota 256
Pesticides 256
Irrigation 257
Remediation Measures 257
Further Reading 258
Climate and Rivers 259
Introduction 259
Climate 259
Climate and Streamflow 260
Mean Annual Flow 260
Interannual Variability 261
Seasonal Regimes 262
Floods 264
Low Flows 268
River Channels and Climate 268
River Regulation, Environment, and Climate 269
Conclusions 270
Further Reading 271
Urban Aquatic Ecosystems 272
Introduction 272
Rivers and Streams 272
Geomorphology 272
Hydrology 274
Chemistry 275
Biology 276
Ecosystem Processes 276
Lakes and Ponds 278
Wetlands 279
Ecosystem Services 279
Conclusions 280
Knowledge Gaps 280
Glossary 281
Further Reading 281
Relevant Websites 282
Restoration Ecology of Rivers 283
Introduction 283
Present State of the World's Rivers 283
Dams 283
Water Abstraction 283
Agriculture 284
Urbanization 284
The Recommendations of River Restoration Ecology 285
Restoration without Constraints 285
Restoration with Constraints 285
The River Restoration Process 285
The Planning Stage 285
The Implementation Stage 288
The Monitoring Stage 288
Recommendations for the Future 290
Glossary 291
Further Reading 291
Relevant Websites 292
Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems 293
Introduction 293
Status of Freshwater Biodiversity 293
Major Threats 294
Conservation Challenges 297
Conservation Strategies 297
Integrated Water Resources Management and Integrated River Basin Management 298
Environmental Flows 299
Dams: Operation, Design, Removal 299
Protected Areas 300
Retaining Wild or Free-Flowing Rivers 300
Restoration 300
Convention Programs of Work 301
Conclusions 301
Further Reading 301
Relevant Websites 301
Rivers of the World 304
Africa 304
General Features of the African Continent 304
Relief 304
Lithology 304
Climate 307
River Network Organisation and River Regimes 307
Exorheism, Endorheism, and Arheism are Continuously Changing 307
River Regimes in Africa 307
Suspended Load 310
Riverine Chemistry 310
Human Impacts and Uncertain Future of African Rivers 312
Damming 312
Pollution 312
Decreasing River Flows 313
Perspectives 313
Further Reading 313
Relevant Website 314
Asia - Eastern Asia 315
Introduction 315
General Features 315
Water Discharge 315
Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) 319
Chemical Composition of TDS 321
Major Solute Composition of TDS 321
Long-Term Trend in Major Solute Concentrations 321
Acidification in the Changjiang 321
Salinization in the Huanghe 323
Alkalinization in the Songhuajiang 323
Seaward TDS Flux 323
Elemental Composition of TSS 323
Human Impacts 325
Concluding Remarks 326
Further Reading 326
Asia - Monsoon Asia 327
General Features of South and Southeast Asian Drainages 327
Drainage Network and River Discharge Regimes 327
Suspended Loads and Water Chemistry 331
Human Effects on South Asian Rivers 331
Perspectives 333
Glossary 333
Further Reading 334
Relevant Website 334
Asia - Northern Asia and Central Asia Endorheic Rivers 335
Arctic and Pacific Rivers 335
Present River Network Organization and Its Past Evolution 335
Temperature and River Discharge Regimes 335
Relief, Sediment Transport and Suspended Solids 336
Catchment Lithology and River Chemistry 340
Nutrients and Organic Carbon 340
Human Impacts 340
Endorheic Rivers of Central Asia 342
Past and Present River Network Organization 342
Hydrology and Climate Conditions 342
Relief, Sediment Supply and Suspended Solids 343
Lithology and Water Chemistry 343
Human Impacts and Salinization 343
Further Reading 344
Relevant Websites 344
Australia (and Papua, New Guinea) 345
Hydrological Network, Past and Present 345
Hydroclimates and Hydrological Regimes 345
Sediment Transport 346
Ion Chemistry 349
Human Impacts: Mining and Salinization 351
Further Reading 351
Relevant Websites 352
European Rivers* 353
Introduction 353
Biogeographic Setting 353
Cultural and Socioeconomic Setting 353
Hydrogeomorphic and Human Legacies 353
Last Glacial Maximum and Holocene Distribution of River Networks 353
Early and Recent Human Impacts of European Rivers 355
Water Availability, Runoff, and Water Stress 355
Riverine Flood Plains 356
River Deltas 358
Water Quality 359
Freshwater Biodiversity 361
The European Water Framework Directive 362
Knowledge Gaps 362
Further Reading 364
Relevant Websites 364
South America 365
Introduction and Overview 365
Caribbean and North Atlantic Basins 365
Geomorphology and Hydrology 365
Biology and Ecology 366
Management Issues 367
Amazon Basin 369
Geomorphology and Hydrology 370
Biology and Ecology 371
Management Issues 371
South Atlantic Basins 371
Geomorphology and Hydrology 372
Biology and Ecology 372
Management Issues 372
Pacific Basins 373
Geomorphology and Hydrology 373
Biology and Ecology 373
Management Issues 373
Endorheic Basins 373
Further Reading 374
Streams and Rivers of North America: Overview, Eastern and Central Basins 375
Introduction and Overview 375
Atlantic Basins of the United States and Canada 376
Landscape and Climate 376
Geomorphology and Hydrology 378
Biology and Ecology 379
Mississippi River Basins 379
Landscape and Climate 380
Geomorphology and Hydrology 380
Biology and Ecology 381
U.S. Gulf of Mexico Basins, Exclusive of Mississippi River 382
Landscape and Climate 382
Geomorphology and Hydrology 382
Biology and Ecology 383
Summary of Human Impacts 383
Glossary 384
Further Reading 385
Relevant Websites 385
Streams and Rivers of North America: Western, Northern and Mexican Basins 386
Introduction 386
Arid Southwestern Basins of the United States (Colorado River, Great Basin) 386
Landscape and Climate 386
Geomorphology and Hydrology 387
Biology and Ecology 387
Mexican Basins Exclusive of Rio Grande 389
Landscape and Climate 389
Geomorphology and Hydrology 390
Biology and Ecology 390
Pacific Basins of the United States and Canada 391
Landscape and Climate 391
Geomorphology and Hydrology 392
Biology and Ecology 393
Arctic and Subarctic basins 394
Landscape and Climate 394
Geomorphology and Hydrology 395
Biology and Ecology 396
Summary of Human Impacts 396
Glossary 397
Further Reading 397
Relevant Websites 397
Subject Index 398