Gas Turbines (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Air, Land, and Sea Applications 4
Copyright Page 5
Dedication Page 6
Contents 8
Preface 14
Introduction 16
List of Acronyms 18
Notes to the Reader 20
About the Author 22
Chapter 1: Gas Turbines: An Introduction and Applications 24
Gas Turbines on Land 25
Direct Drive and Mechanical Drive 25
Applications Versatility with Land Based Gas Turbines 27
Aeroengine Gas Turbines 28
The Relations between Pressure, Volume, and Temperature 29
Changes in Velocity and Pressure 31
Airflow 31
Gas Turbines at Sea 34
Gas Turbines: Details of Individual Applications 35
Major Classes of Power Generation Application 35
Automotive Applications 40
Marine Applications 41
Aircraft Applications—Propulsion Requirements 46
Chapter 2: Historical Development of the Gas Turbine 56
Early History of the Gas Turbines 57
Land Based Gas Turbine Development Perspective 57
Switzerland (& Swiss abroad)
Germany (& Germans abroad)
England (& English abroad)
Aircraft Engine Development: A U.S. Perspective 57
Principles of Jet Propulsion 59
Methods of Jet Propulsion 60
Appendices: The Gas Turbine Global Fleet 66
2A: Gas Turbine Engines Powering Aircraft 66
2B: Gas Turbines for Elec Gen, Mech Drive, & Marine Power
2C: Gas Turbines for APU/GPU Units 82
2D: Gas Turbines Powering Missiles/Drones/RPV/UAV 84
2E: Gas Turbines Powering On-land/Surface Vehicles 88
2F: Gas Turbines Powering Microturbines for Elec Gen 88
Chapter 3: Gas Turbine Configurations and Heat Cycles 90
Gas Turbine Configurations 91
Turbojet with Afterburner and Convergent- Divergent Nozzle 91
Separate Jets Turbofan 91
Mixed Turbofan with Afterburner 91
Ramjet 92
Simple-Cycle Single-Spool Shaft-Power Engine 92
Combined Heat and Power 95
Aeroderivative and Heavyweight Gas Turbines 96
Gas Turbine Cycles: Summarized Theory and Economics 97
Power Generation Gas Turbine, Simple and Combined Cycles 97
Steam Power Plant Theory Applicable to Combined Cycles and Operating "Solo" as Competition to GTs 99
Steam Turbine Basic Components and Main Systems 102
Supercritical Systems: Targeting 700+ degC Steam Temperature 119
Case 1. Advanced Design of Mitsubishi Large Steam Turbines 122
Combined Cycles and Other GT Cycle Modifications 124
Combined Cycle Economics 128
Case 2. An End User/EPC Contractor's Experience with Some of the OEM's Latest Models 136
Chapter 4: Gas Turbine Major Components and Modules 142
Economics Dictates Design 143
Primary Module Basics 145
Main Modules in a Gas Turbine 148
Compressors 148
Combustors 157
Low NOx Combustors 164
Flameless (Catalytic) Combustors 177
Turbines 178
Chapter 5: Cooling and Load Bearing Systems 190
Internal Air System 191
Cooling 191
Sealing 192
Control of Bearing Loads 195
Aircraft Services 195
Lubrication 195
Lubricating Systems 195
Oil System Components 197
Lubricating Oils 200
An Operator’s Perspective 202
Chapter 6: Inlets, Exhausts, and Noise Suppression 206
Gas Turbine Inlet Air Filtration 207
Inlet Air Filters for the Tropical Environment 207
Problems Experienced 208
Offshore Environment Original Design Data 209
The Initial Filter Designs 210
The Actual Offshore Environment 210
The Problems Encountered 210
Gas Turbine Exhausts 212
Exhaust Gas Flow 212
Construction and Materials 214
Gas Turbine Noise Suppression 214
Methods of Suppressing 218
Construction and Materials 219
Nonaeroengine (Land Based) Gas Turbine Noise Suppression 219
Applications of Sound Intensity Measurements to Gas Turbine Engineering 219
Fundamental Concepts 221
Instrumentation 221
Guidelines and Standards in Sound Intensity Measurements and Measurement Technique 222
Some Advantages and Limitations in Sound Intensity Measurements 224
Measuring Tonal Noise Sources 225
Case Studies of the Use of Sound Intensity 225
Acoustic Design of Lightweight Gas Turbine Enclosures 227
Chapter 7: Gas Turbine Fuel Systems and Fuels 236
Basic Gas Turbine Fuel System 237
Manual and Automatic Control 237
Fuel Control Systems 237
Electronic Engine Control 250
Low Pressure Fuel System 251
Fuel Pumps 251
Fuel Spray Nozzles 251
Fuel Heating 253
Effect of a Change of Fuel 253
Gas Turbine Fuels 254
Fuel and Fuel Oil Properties 256
The Combustion Process and Gas Turbine Fuel Types 256
Database of Key Fuel Properties for Performance Calculations 257
Synthesis Exchange Rates for Primary Fuel Types 258
Oil Types and Database of Key Properties 260
Formulae 260
Unconventional Fuels 261
Economic Conditions that Affect Fuel Strategy 261
Physical Properties that Affect Fuel Selection and System Design 263
Liquid Fuels 267
One OEM’s Success with Nonconventional Fuels 269
Fuel Treatment Hardware 273
Fuel Properties that Affect Fuel Treatment 273
Fuel Treatment 276
Methods of Separation 276
Selection of Fuel Washing Equipment 277
Treatment of Light Crude Oil 285
Treatment of Residual Fuel 288
Case 1. A Residual “Bunker” Fuel Case Study 291
Plant Performance and Availability 299
Case 2. Autoignition Characteristics of Gaseous Fuels at Representative Gas Turbine Conditions 299
Case 3. From Concept to Commercial Operation—the Tri-Fuel Injector Used for LPG and Naphtha Applications 305
Case 4. Multi-Fuel Concept of the Siemens 3A-Gas Turbine Series 310
Fuel Changeover 314
Chapter 8: Accessory Systems 316
Accessory Drives 317
Gearboxes and Drives 317
Construction and Materials 319
Starting and Ignition Systems 321
Methods of Starting 322
Ignition 326
Relighting 329
Ice Protection Systems 329
Hot Air System 329
Electrical System 330
Fire Protection Systems 332
Prevention of Engine Fire Ignition 332
Fire Detection 333
Fire Containment 333
Fire Extinguishing 335
Engine Overheat Detection 335
Water Injection Systems 335
Compressor Inlet Injection 336
Combustion Chamber Injection 336
Systems Unique to Aircraft Engine Applications 338
Thrust Reversal 338
Afterburning 342
Vertical/Short Take-off and Landing 349
Thrust Distribution 358
Systems Unique to Land or Marine Applications 363
Generators 363
Online Cleaning Systems 372
Expansion Joints 375
Chapter 9: Controls, Instrumentation, and Diagnostics (CID) 380
System Scope and Selection 381
Which Parameters on What Machine? 381
Basic Controls and Instrumentation (C& I) on GT Systems
A Typical Aircraft Engine C& I System
Typical C& I System, Land Based (Power Generation)
Significant Advances in CID Technology 395
Optical Pyrometry 396
Digital Telemetry 401
Pulsation Analysis: New Techniques and Their Limitations 402
Performance and C& I System Verification with Modeling
Chapter 10: Performance, Performance Testing, and Performance Optimization 410
Performance 412
Performance Theory Summary 412
Performance Testing New Gas Turbine Engines: Parameters and Calculations 421
Parameters 421
Analysis/Calculations on the Effects of Water as a Vapor, Liquid, or Solid 443
Case 1. The W501G Testing and Validation in the Siemens Westinghouse Advanced Turbine Systems Program 457
Performance Optimization Case Histories and Discussion 462
Case 2. A Systems Approach to Hot Section Component Life Management 463
Case 3. Augmentation of Gas Turbine Power Output by Steam Injection 468
Case 4. Integrating Gas Turbines in Power and Cogeneration Applications 478
Case 5. An Integrated Combined-Cycle Plant Design that Provides Fast Start Capability at Base-Load 482
Case 6. Challenges in the Design of High Load Cycling Operation for Combined Cycle Power Plants 485
Chapter 11: Gaseous Emissions and the Environment 494
Gaseous Emissions 495
Arctic Warming Evidence 495
Emissions Legislation 496
Emission Permits 503
Carbon Dioxide: Capture, Storage, and Utilization 503
Chapter 12: Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul 516
Operating and Maintenance Strategies 517
Reactive Strategy 517
Predictive Strategy 517
Preventive Strategy 517
Evolving Strategy in Land versus Air versus Marine Applications 517
Maintenance 518
On-Wing Maintenance 519
Condition Monitoring 519
Maintenance Precautions 521
Troubleshooting 521
Adjustments 521
Ground Testing 522
Maintenance Information Systems 523
Audits of and Retrofits with GT Components and Systems 525
Aims of an Audit 526
Audit Planning 526
General Audit Procedures 527
Changing Legislative Requirements 528
Retrofits Aimed at Operational Optimization 529
Case 1. Brent Platform Retrofits for Extended Life 529
Case 2. Flotta Terminal 530
Case 3. Forties Platform Retrofits 531
Case 4. Al-Ain Flameout Problems 532
Performance Analysis 532
Case 5. Extending TBOs of Gas Turbines by Preventing Premature Turbine Disc Failure in a GE Frame 5 (Old Model) 533
Case 6. Power Addition for GT in Cogeneration Service Using Steam Injection 534
Integration of Detection, Assessment, and Planning in Audits 534
Case 7. Glass Bead Peening 539
Case 8. First-Stage Turbine Blades 539
Assessing Audit Findings 540
The Basics 540
Eliminate Obvious Problems 540
Risk and Weighting Factors Method 541
Questionnaire to List Potential Factors and Causes 541
Overhaul and Repair 541
Major Repair and Overhaul Case Studies 550
Case 9. Evolution of IGT “F” Class Repair Technology 550
Case 10. Liburdi Powder Metallurgy, Applications for Manufacture and Repair of Gas Turbine Components 559
Case 11. Hot-Gas-Path Life Extension Options for the V94.2 Gas Turbine 565
Chapter 13: Installation 572
Installation of Aircraft Engines 573
Power Plant Location 573
Air Intakes 574
Engine and Jet Pipe Mountings 575
Accessories 577
Cowlings 578
Installation of Land Based and Marine Engines 578
Chapter 14: The Business of Gas Turbines 580
The Contemporary Business Climate 581
Culture 582
Repair and Overhaul Shop Culture 582
End User or Operator Culture 584
OEM (Manufacturer) Culture 584
Conglomerate and Joint Venture Cultures 586
Educators and Training 586
Integration with Environmental Technology Culture 586
Risk 586
Selection and Specification Process for Gas Turbines and Gas Turbine Systems 586
Risk Factors and Their Mitigation in Gas Turbine Design and Operation 587
"Shifting Target” Data during Project Development, Negotiation, and New Model Introduction 590
Risk in Negotiating IPP Projects 591
International Negotiation 591
Market Assessment Risk 591
Plant Siting 592
Design Development and Operational Assessment by Both OEMs and End Users 592
Case 1 592
Case 2 595
Case 3 600
Chapter 15: Manufacturing, Materials, and Metallurgy 608
Basic Manufacture 610
Manufacturing Strategy 610
Forging 611
Casting 612
Fabrication 612
Welding 612
Electro-Chemical Machining (E.C.M.) 615
Electro-Discharge Machining (E.D.M.) 617
Composite Materials and Sandwich Casings 618
Inspection 619
Case 1. Upgrading the Core Engine 619
Raising Serviceability Ceilings 626
Spray Forming 627
Casing Fabrication 627
Microstructure of Processed and Heat Treated RS5 627
Creep Resistance Advancements 628
Creep Resistance of Materials for Microturbine Recuperators 628
Ceramic Components 628
Case 2. Ceramic Vanes for a Model 501-K Industrial Turbine Demonstration 629
Case 3. Assessment of Ceramic and Metal Media Filters in Advanced Power Systems 634
Chapter 16: Microturbines, Fuel Cells, and Hybrid Systems 640
Microturbines 641
Fuel Cells 641
Power Generation Tubular SOFC Technology 641
Hybrids 642
Applications and Case Studies 644
Case 1. Microturbine in a CHP Application 644
Case 2. A Fuel Cell Application 645
Wide Application Fuel Cell Turbomachinery 647
Case 3. Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Cycle Power Systems 649
Case 4. A Turbogenerator for a Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Power Plant 652
Chapter 17: Training and Education 660
Industry Training 661
Case 1. OEM Project Application Engineer Training 661
Training Programs within Academia 665
Case 2. Industry Supported Multimedia Aeroengine Design Case 667
Case 3. Theoretical Calculations Compared with Actual Cogeneration Plant 668
Case 4. Undergraduate Engine Design Program 668
Case 5. Gas Turbine University Laboratory Study 676
Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Experiment 677
Chapter 18: Future Trends in the Gas Turbine Industry 682
Changing Tides: Financial, Political, Legislative, and Technological 684
Politics 684
Global Deregulation in Power Generation 684
Environmental Factors 689
Environmental Legislation 689
Fuel System Variables and Versatility 689
OEM Growth and Diversification 690
OEM Acquisitions, Joint Ventures, and Licensees 690
OEM Business Strategy Including Production Backlogs and Vendor Alliances 691
Technology Transfer 691
Optimization of Existing Features and Support Technology 693
Transmission and Distribution Improvements 693
End-User Associations and Lobbies 693
End-User Associations 693
Lobbies 694
E-Trading 694
New and Unconventional Fuel Resources 694
Distributed Power: How Large Does a Power Plant Need to Be? 694
The Age of the Personal Turbine 694
The Power Mix 694
Case 1. Does California Need Liquefied Natural Gas? 695
California’s Energy Efficiency Potential 696
California’s Renewable Energy Potential 696
Is California’s Renewable Energy Market Viable? 696
Additional Supplies of Natural Gas in North America 700
Chapter 19: Basic Design Theory 702
Operational Envelope 703
The Environmental Envelope 703
Installation Pressure Losses 710
The Flight Envelope 712
Properties and Charts for Dry Air, Combustion Products, and Other Working Fluids 715
Description of Fundamental Gas Properties 715
Description of Key Thermodynamic Parameters 716
Composition of Dry Air and Combustion Products 716
The Use of CP and Gamma, or Specific Enthalpy and Entropy, in Calculations 717
Database for Fundamental and Thermodynamic Gas Properties 717
Formulae 722
“Design Point” Engine Design, Definitions, and Terminology 724
Design Point Performance Parameters, Definitions 725
Linearly Scaling Components and Engines 727
Design Point Exchange Rates 727
Open Shaft Power Cycles 727
Combined Heat and Power 729
Closed Cycles 729
Aircraft Engine Shaft Power Cycles 729
The Engine Concept Design Process 729
Margins Required When Specifying Target Performance Levels 730
Case 1. Prediction Effects of Mass-Transfer Cooling on the Blade-Row Efficiency of Turbine Airfoils 731
One-Dimensional Methods 733
The TOTLOS Method 735
Case 2. Advanced Technology Engine Supportability: Preliminary Designer’s Challenge 737
Historical Trends/Recent GEAE Experience 738
Advanced Materials 738
Engine Preliminary Design 739
Specific Examples 739
Chapter 20: Additional References and Appendix for Unit Conversion 744
Additional General References 745
Some Specific References 745
Unit Conversions 745
Index 750