Principles of Soil and Plant Water Relations (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Principles of Soil and Plant Water Relations 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Preface 16
Chapter 1. Introduction 20
I. Why Study Soil-Plant-Water Relations? 20
II. Plant Growth Curves 25
III. Appendix: Biography of John Napier 30
Chapter 2. Definitions of Physical Units and the International System 34
I.Definitions 34
II. Le Système International d’Unités 39
III. Example: Applying Units of Work and Pressure to a Root 42
IV. Appendix: Biography of Isaac Newton 43
Chapter 3. Structure and Properties of Water 46
I. Structure of Water 46
II. Forces That Bind Water Molecules Together 47
III. Properties of Water 49
IV. Appendix: Biography of Johannes van der Waals 58
Chapter 4. Tensiometers 60
I. Description of a Tensiometer 60
II. Types of Tensiometers 64
III. Temperature Effects on Tensiometers 69
IV. Applications of Tensiometers 70
V. Appendix: Biography of L.A. Richards 71
Chapter 5. Soil-Water Terminology and Applications 74
I. Water Content 74
II. Water Potential 74
III. Heads in a Column of Soil 79
IV. Movement of Water Between Tensiometers 82
V. Appendix: Biography of William L. Powers 83
Chapter 6. Static Water in Soil 86
I. Surface Tension 86
II. Examples of Surface Tension 92
III. Rise and Fall of Water in Soil Pores 94
IV. Appendix: History of Surface Tension 98
V. Appendix: Biography of Marquis de Laplace 101
Chapter 7. Water Movement in Saturated Soil 104
I. Darcy’s Law 104
II. Hydraulic Conductivity 106
III. Laplace’s Equation 107
IV. Ellipse Equation 107
V. Linear Flow Laws 112
VI. Appendix: Biography of Apollonius of Perga 115
VII. Appendix: Biography of Henry Darcy 116
Chapter 8. Field Capacity, Wilting Point, Available Water, and the Non-Limiting Water Range 120
I. Field Capacity 120
II. Wilting Point 123
III. Available Water 126
IV. Non-Limiting Water Range 127
V. Biographies of Briggs and Shantz 129
Chapter 9. Penetrometer Measurements 136
I. Definition, Types of Penetrometers, and Uses 136
II. Types of Tests 137
III. What Penetrometer Measurements Depend Upon 138
IV. Cone Penetrometer 140
V. Appendix: Biography of Champ Tanner 143
Chapter 10. Measurement of Oxygen Diffusion Rate 148
I. The Oxygen Diffusion Rate Method 148
II. Electrolysis 150
III. Model and Principles of the ODR Method 153
IV.Method 156
V. Appendix: Biography of Michael Faraday 160
Chapter 11. Infiltration 164
I. Definition of Infiltration 164
II. Four Models of One-Dimensional Infiltration 166
III. Two- and Three-Dimensional Infiltration 169
IV. Redistribution 169
V. Tension Infiltrometer or Disc Permeameter 170
VI. Minidisk Infiltrometer 173
VII. Measurement of Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Sorptivity with the Tension Infiltrometer 174
VIII. Measurement of Repellency with the Tension Infiltrometer 179
IX. Measurement of Mobility with the Tension Infiltrometer 180
X. Ellipsoidal Description of Water Flow into Soil from a Surface Disc 185
XI. Appendix: Biography of John Philip 187
Chapter 12. Pore Volume 192
I. Definitions 192
II. Illustration of Breakthrough Curves and Pore Volumes 194
III. Mathematical Analysis of Pore Volume 194
IV. Calculation of a Pore Volume 198
V. Pore Volumes Based on Length Units 200
VI. Miscible Displacement 202
VII. Relation Between Mobile Water Content and Pore Volume 202
VIII. Appendix: Biography of Donald Nielsen 202
Chapter 13. Time Domain Reflectometry to Measure Volumetric Soil Water Content 206
I. Definitions 206
II. Dielectric Constant, Frequency Domain, and Time Domain 208
III. Theory for Use of the Dielectric Constant to Measure Soil Water Content 209
IV. Coaxial Cable and Waveguides 213
V. Measurement of Soil Water Content Using TDR 214
VI. Practical Information When Using TDR to Measure Soil Water Content 216
VII. Example of Using TDR to Determine Root Water Uptake 218
VIII. HydroSense™ 218
IX. Appendix: Biography of Heinrich Hertz 220
X. Appendix: Biography of Sergei Schelkunoff 221
Chapter 14. Root Anatomy and Poiseuille’s Law for Water Flow in Roots 226
I. Root Anatomy 226
II. Poiseuille’s Law 235
III. Assumptions of Poiseuille’s Law 236
IV. Calculations of Flow Based on Poiseuille’s Law 237
V. Agronomic Applications of Poiseuille’s Law 241
VI. Appendix: Biography of J.L.M. Poiseuille 244
VII. Appendix: Biography of Osborne Reynolds 244
Chapter 15. Gardner’s Equation for Water Movement to Plant Roots 248
I. Description of the Equation 248
II. Assumptions 250
III. Values for the Rate of Water Uptake 250
IV. Examples 252
V. Effect of Wet and Dry Soil 252
VI. Effect of Root Radius 253
VII. Comparison of Matric Potential at Root and in Soil for Different Rates of Water Uptake 254
VIII. Effect of Root Distribution on Wilting 255
IX. Final Comment 256
X. Appendix: Biography of Wilford Gardner 256
Chapter 16. Measurement of Water Potential with Thermocouple Psychrometers 260
I. Relation Between Water Potential and Relative Humidity 260
II. Thermoelectric Effects 261
III. Joule Heating 263
IV. Thermoelectric Power 264
V. Relationship Between Vapor Pressure and Temperature 265
VI. Calibration 266
VII. Importance of Isothermal Conditions When Making Measurements 267
VIII. Types of Thermocouple Psychrometers 268
IX. Appendix: Biography of J.C.A. Peltier 276
X. Appendix: Biography of James Prescott Joule. 276
XI. Appendix: Biography of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin 277
Chapter 17. Measurement of Water Potential with Pressure Chambers 282
I. Comparison of Measurements Made With the Pressure Chamber and the Thermocouple Psychrometer 282
II. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Pressure Chamber 287
III. Hydraulic Press 290
IV. Pump-Up Pressure Chamber 293
V. Appendix: Biography of Per Scholander 293
VI. Appendix: Biography of John Boyer 295
Chapter 18. Stem Anatomy and Measurement of Osmotic Potential and Turgor Potential Using Pressure-Volume Curves 300
I. Stem Anatomy 300
II. Measurement of the Components of the Water Potential 306
III. Osmotic Potential (.S) 308
IV. Theory of Scholander Pressure-Volume Curves 308
V How to Analyze a Pressure-Volume Curve 314
VI. Turgor Potential (.P) 317
VII. Measurement of Plant Water Content and Relative Water Content 319
VIII.Osmometer 324
IX. Appendix: Biography of Wilhelm Pfeffer 327
X. Appendix: Biography of Jacobus van’t Hoff 329
XI. Appendix: Biography of Rudolf Clausius 330
Chapter 19. The Ascent of Water in Plants 334
I. The Problem 334
II. How Water Gets to the Top of Tall Buildings and Animals 335
III. Cohesion Theory 336
IV. Limitations of the Cohesion Theory 338
V. Alternative Theory to the Cohesion Theory 346
VI. New Techniques to Confirm the Cohesion Theory 350
VII. Controvery About the Cohesion Theory 351
VIII. Potentials in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum 351
IX. Appendix: Biography of Henry Dixon 354
X. Appendix: Biography of John Joly 355
Chapter 20. Electrical Analogues for Water Movement through the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum 360
I. The Analogy 360
II. Measurement of Resistance With the Wheatstone Bridge 361
III. Law of Resistance 362
IV. Units of Electrical Conductivity 364
V. Example of an Electrical Analogue Applied to Soil With Wormholes 365
VI. Van den Honert’s Equation 366
VII. Proof of van den Honert’s Equation 368
VIII. Appendix: Biography of Georg Ohm 369
IX. Appendix: Biography of Charles Wheatstone 371
X. Appendix: Biographies of Members of the Siemens Family 372
Chapter 21. Leaf Anatomy and Leaf Elasticity 376
I. Leaf Anatomy 376
II. Internal Water Relations 382
III. Elasticity 385
IV. Elasticity Applied to Plant Leaves 388
V. Appendix: Biography of Robert Hooke 393
VI. Appendix: Biography of Thomas Young 394
Chapter 22. Stomata and Measurement of Stomatal Resistance 398
I. Definition of Stomata and Their Distribution 398
II. Stomatal Anatomy of Dicots and Monocots 399
III. Stomatal Density 400
IV. Diffusion of Gases Through Stomatal Pores 402
V. Guard Cells 403
VI. Mechanism of Stomatal Opening 405
VII. Boundary Layer 406
VIII. Leaf Resistances 407
IX. Measurement of Stomatal Aperture and Stomatal Resistance 411
X. Theory of Mass-Flow and Diffusion Porometers 414
XI. Appendix: Biography of Adolf Fick 416
Chapter 23. Solar Radiation, Black Bodies, Heat Budget, and Radiation Balance 422
I. Solar Radiation 422
II. Terrestrial Radiation 423
III. Definition of a Black Body 425
IV. Example of a Black Body 427
V. Temperature of a Black Body 428
VI. Gray Body 429
VII. Spectrum of a Black Body 429
VIII. Sun’s Temperature 431
IX. Earth’s Temperature 432
X. Comparison of Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 432
XI. Heat Budget 433
XII. Radiation Balance 435
XIII. Appendix: Biography of Gustav Kirchhoff 437
XIV. Appendix: Biography of Josef Stefan 439
XV. Appendix: Biography of Ludwig Boltzmann 440
XVI. Appendix: Biography of Wilhelm Wien 441
Chapter 24. Measurement of Canopy Temperature with Infrared Thermometers 444
I. Infrared Thermometers 445
II. Definitions 446
III. Principles of Infrared Thermometry 446
IV. Use of a Portable Infrared Thermometer 449
V. Calibration of Infrared Thermometers 450
VI. Advantages of Infrared Thermometers 451
VII. Appendix: Biography of Ray Jackson 452
Chapter 25. Stress-Degree-Day Concept and Crop-Water-Stress Index 456
I. Stress-Degree-Day Procedure 456
II. Canopy-Minus-Air Temperature and Evapotranspiration 459
III. Crop-Water-Stress Index 462
IV. How to Calculate the Crop-Water-Stress Index 467
V. Crop-Water-Stress Index for Alfalfa, Soybeans, and Cotton 467
VI. Importance of a Wide Range of Vapor-Pressure Deficit Values 470
VII. Appendix: Biography of Sherwood Idso 470
Chapter 26. Potential Evapotranspiration 474
I. Definition of Potential Evapotranspiration 474
II. Factors That Affect Potential Evapotranspiration 474
III. Advection 483
IV. Example Calculation to Determine Potential Evapotranspiration 483
V. Appendix: Biography of Howard Penman 485
Chapter 27. Water and Yield 488
I. De Wit’s Analysis 488
II. Relationship Between Yield and Transpiration and Yield and Evapotranspiration 490
III. Water and Marketable Yield 497
IV. Water and Quality 497
V. Crop-Water-Use Efficiency 498
VI. Appendix: Biography of Cornelius de Wit 501
Index 504