Obesity Prevention (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Obesity Prevention: The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
List of contributors 16
Preface 20
Acknowledgments 22
Introduction: On the Brain-to-Society Model of Motivated Choice and the Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention 24
Part 1. FROM BRAIN TO BEHAVIOR 32
A. Energy is Delight: Sensory and Reward Systems 34
Chapter 1 The Pleasures and Pains of Brain Regulatory Systems for Eating 36
1.1 Introduction 36
1.2 Satiety Agents versus Aversion-Inducing Agents 37
1.3 Various Methodologies to Evaluate Affective Change in Pre-Clinical Appetite Research 38
1.4 Conditioned Taste Aversions – From Animal Models to Human Brain Analysis? 43
1.5 Conclusion 44
References 44
Chapter 2 The Neurobiology of Appetite: Hunger as Addiction 46
2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 Hunger as Addiction 47
2.3 Response to Conditioned Cues 48
2.4 Functional Brain Imaging of Cue Reactivity 51
2.5 Conclusion 51
References 52
Chapter 3 Opioids: Culprits for Overconsumption of Palatable Foods? 54
3.1 Introduction 54
3.2 Opioids and Feeding Behavior in Rodent Models 55
3.3 Opioids and Dysregulation of Eating Patterns and Body Weight in Human Beings 62
3.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 64
References 65
Chapter 4 Taste, Olfactory and Food-texture Processing in the Brain and the Control of Appetite 72
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Taste-Processing in the Primate Brain 73
4.3 The Representation of Flavor: Convergence of Olfactory, Taste and Visual Inputs in the Orbitofrontal Cortex 75
4.4 The Texture of Food, Including Fat Texture 75
4.5 Imaging Studies in Humans 75
4.6 Cognitive Effects on Representations of Food 77
4.7 Synthesis 78
4.8 Implications for Understanding, Preventing, and Treating Obesity 78
4.9 Concluding Remarks 83
References 84
Chapter 5 Cortical and Limbic Activation in Response to Low- and High-calorie Food 88
5.1 Introduction 88
5.2 Brain Responses to Food Stimuli in Healthy Adults 89
5.3 Modulating Factors 92
5.4 Cortical and Limbic Activation to Food Images During Adolescent Development 96
5.5 Conclusion 99
References 99
Chapter 6 Reward-related Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction: Pathogenic Potential of a Survival Mechanism 104
6.1 Introduction 104
6.2 Food Restriction may Augment Neurobiological Responses to Palatable Food in a Way that Promotes Addictive Behavior 106
6.3 Food Restriction Enhances CNS and Behavioral Responses to Drugs of Abuse and Dopamine Receptor Agonists 107
6.4 Food Restriction Up-regulates D1 Dopamine Receptor-Mediated Phosphorylation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Signaling Proteins that Underlie Synaptic Plasticity 108
6.5 Striatal Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction may be Secondary to Changes in Pre-synaptic Dopamine Neuronal Function 110
6.6 A Schema to Consider as Research Continues 111
References 112
B. Executive Control Systems and the Challenges They Face in the Modern World of Plenty 118
Chapter 7 The Neuroeconomics of Food Selection and Purchase 120
7.1 Introduction 120
7.2 Positive Valuations 121
7.3 Influences on Positive Valuations 121
7.4 Negative Valuations 124
7.5 Influences on Negative Valuations 126
7.6 Selection 127
7.7 Habits 131
7.8 Conclusions 132
References 132
Chapter 8 Resisting Temptation: Impulse Control and Trade-offs between Immediate Rewards and Long-term Consequences 136
8.1 Introduction 136
8.2 A Neural System for Decision-Making and Will-power: The Somatic Marker Hypothesis 137
8.3 Empirical Evidence for Deficits of Decision-making Underlying Obesity 139
8.4 Conclusion 143
References 143
Chapter 9 Hunger, Satiety, and Food Preferences: Effects of the Brain and the Body on the Self-Control of Eating 146
9.1 Introduction 146
9.2 The Components of Self-control 147
9.3 Physiological Influences on Self-control 148
9.4 Promoting Self-control for a Healthy Body Weight 152
9.5 Conclusions 153
References 153
Chapter 10 Associative Learning and the Control of Food Intake 156
10.1 A Behavioral Reporting of Eating 156
10.2 Eating is a Learned Behavior 157
10.3 Forms of Learned Ingestive Response 157
10.4 Sensory-specific Anticipatory Eating 158
10.5 Diurnal Rhythms and the Learned Response 161
10.6 Nutrients and Cognition 161
10.7 Dietary Fats and Learning 161
10.8 Our Primitive Brain 162
References 162
Chapter 11 Restrained Eating in a World of Plenty 166
11.1 Introduction 166
11.2 The Effects of Having Food Cues Present 167
11.3 Response to Food Cues in Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters 167
11.4 Food Photographs and/or Words – Indirect Food Cues 169
11.5 Portion Size as Food Cue 170
11.6 The Removal of Food Cues 171
11.7 Caloric Restriction in Animals and Humans 171
11.8 Is CR Likely to be Effective for Humans? 172
11.9 Caloric Restriction in the Presence of Food Cues 173
11.10 Dieting in a World of Food Cues 175
References 175
C. Biological Systems that Favor a Positive Energy Balance and Body-weight Increase in a World of Plenty 178
Chapter 12 The Genetic Determinants of Ingestive Behavior: Sensory, Energy Homeostasis and Food Reward Aspects of Ingestive Behavior 180
12.1 Introduction 180
12.2 Sensory Determinants of Food Intake 182
12.3 Energy Homeostasis Pathways and Food Intake 183
12.4 Reward Circuits and Food Intake 186
12.5 Conclusions 187
References 188
Chapter 13 Development of Human Learned Flavor Likes and Dislikes 192
13.1 Introduction 192
13.2 Understanding Flavor Perception 193
13.3 Why Innate Flavor-liking is Rare 194
13.4 Flavor-preference Learning 195
13.5 Different Learning Mechanisms Interact to Enhance Flavor-liking 199
13.6 Liking and Intake: The Role of Palatability in Overeating 200
13.7 Acquired Liking as a Driver of Overeating 201
13.8 Individual Differences in Learning 202
13.9 Summary 204
References 204
Chapter 14 Biopsychological Factors and Body-weight Stability 210
14.1 Introduction 210
14.2 Is Knowledge-based Work a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic? 211
14.3 Is Short Sleep Duration a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic? 214
14.4 Weight Loss: Not Always Beneficial for the Psychological Health 215
14.5 Physical Activity and Diet: What is the Impact on Body-weight Stability? 217
14.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 217
References 218
Chapter 15 Nutrition, Epigenomics and the Development of Obesity: How the Genome Learns from Experience 222
15.1 The Basics of Epigenetics and Epigenomics 222
15.2 Epigenetic Marks During Development and Aging 224
15.3 Nutritional Epigenomics 225
15.4 Epigenetics and Brain Function 227
15.5 An Epigenetic Basis for Developmental Programming of Obesity? 228
15.6 Physical Activity, Epigenetic Markings and Obesity 228
15.7 Concluding Comments 229
References 230
Chapter 16 The Role of Early Life Experiences in Flavor Perception and Delight 234
16.1 Introduction 234
16.2 Flavor and the Ontogeny of the Senses 236
16.3 Taste and Development 238
16.4 Learning about Food Flavors 242
16.5 Concluding Remarks 243
References 244
Chapter 17 Implications of the Glycemic Index in Obesity 250
17.1 Introduction 250
17.2 The concept of the Glycemic Index 251
17.3 Mechanisms of Action 252
17.4 Effects of low GI Foods on Appetite, Food Intake and Satiety 253
17.5 GI and Obesity 255
17.6 GI and Diabetes 255
17.7 GI and Cardiovascular Disease 256
17.8 Conclusion 257
References 257
Chapter 18 Characterizing the Homeostatic and Hedonic Markers of the Susceptible Phenotype 262
18.1 The Approach 263
18.2 Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes 263
18.3 What Would a Susceptible Phenotype Look Like? 264
18.4 What Level of Analysis is Appropriate? 264
18.5 Appetite is Not Rocket Science – It is More Complicated 265
18.6 Diversity, Susceptibility and Homeostasis 265
18.7 Hedonics: The Importance of Liking and Wanting 266
18.8 Comparing Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes 267
18.9 Resistance to Weight Loss – The Other Side of Susceptibility 268
18.10 Conclusions 269
References 269
Chapter 19 The Carnivore Connection: Cross-population Differences in the Prevalence of Genes Producing Insulin Resistance 272
19.1 Background 272
19.2 The Evolution of Insulin Resistance 273
19.3 Determinants of Insulin Resistance 275
19.4 Candidate Genes and Cross-population Genetic Differences 277
19.5 Conclusion 279
References 279
Chapter 20 Neuroanatomical Correlates of Hunger and Satiaty in Lean and Obese Individuals 284
20.1 Physiology of Hunger and Satiety in Human Eating Behavior 284
20.2 Functional Neuroimaging Evidence 285
References 289
Chapter 21 Neuroendocrine Stress Response and Its Impact on Eating Behavior and Body Weight 292
21.1 Introduction 292
21.2 Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal Axis 293
21.3 Stress and Food Intake: It is Not all Homeostatic or Automatic 294
21.4 Imaging Studies in Humans 295
21.5 Peripheral Signals Regulating Energy Balance 296
21.6 Conclusion 298
References 299
D. Integrative and Multi-level Models of Eating and of Energy and Body-weight Regulation 304
Chapter 22 Eating Behavior and its Determinants: From Gene to Environment 306
22.1 Introduction 306
22.2 Genes 307
22.3 The Environment 307
22.4 Genes – Environment Interactions 309
22.5 A General Model of Intake Regulation 311
22.6 Discussion 313
References 314
Chapter 23 The Molecular Regulation of Body Weight: The Role of Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin 318
23.1 Introduction 318
23.2 Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin 319
23.3 Leptin Protein 319
23.4 Ghrelin Protein 321
23.5 Hypocretin Protein 322
23.6 Concluding Remarks 324
References 325
Chapter 24 Energy Balance Regulation: Complex Interplay between the Autonomic and Cognitive/Limbic Brains to Control Food Intake and Thermogenesis 330
24.1 Introduction 330
24.2 The Regulation of Energy Balance 331
24.3 Brain Pathways Involved in the Control of Food Intake and Thermogenesis 332
24.4 Conclusion 340
References 341
E. Individual-level Interventions to Tap into Appropriate Brain Systems for Sustainable Behavioral Change 348
Chapter 25 Stealth Interventions for Obesity Prevention and Control: Motivating Behavior Change 350
25.1 Motivation for Behavior Change 350
25.2 Self-efficacy 351
25.3 Stealth Interventions 351
25.4 Social and Ideological Movements as Stealth Interventions to Change Health Behaviors 354
25.5 Conclusion 355
References 357
Chapter 26 From Diets to Healthy and Pleasurable Everyday Eating 360
26.1 The Diet Zeitgest 360
26.2 A New Weight Paradigm 366
26.3 The New Paradigm's Contribution to Solving the Obesity Epidemic 368
References 370
Chapter 27 Resisting Temptations: How Food-Related Control Abilities can be Strengthened through Implementation Intentions 374
27.1 Introduction 374
27.2 The Motivational Nature of Food 375
27.3 Food-Related Control Abilities 377
References 381
Chapter 28 The Dieter's Dilemma: Identifying When and How to Control Consumption 384
28.1 Introduction 384
28.2 A Two-stage Model of Self-control: Identification versus Resolution 385
28.3 Conclusions 392
References 393
Chapter 29 Lifestyle Change and Maintenance in Obesity Treatment and Prevention: A Self-determination Theory Perspective 396
29.1 Introduction 396
29.2 Self-determination Theory 397
29.3 Self-regulation 397
29.4 Need-supportive Contexts 398
29.5 SDT and Weight Loss 400
29.6 Potentional Limitations of Current Interventions: An SDT Perspective 401
29.7 Directions for Future Research Based on SDT 402
References 403
Chapter 30 Nutritional Genomics in Obesity Prevention and Treatment 406
30.1 Background 406
30.2 The Genetics of Obesity 407
30.3 Nutritional Genomics 410
30.4 The Role of Gene Polymorphisms 411
30.5 The Role of Gene Expression 412
30.6 From Bench to Bedside: Predicting Outcome 415
30.7 Outlook 416
References 417
Chapter 31 Physical Activity for Obese Children and Adults 422
31.1 Introduction 422
31.2 Adults and Physical Activity 423
31.3 Physical Activity and Young People 423
31.4 Linking Physical Activity and Obesity 424
31.5 The Model 425
31.6 Fit or Fat 430
31.7 Conclusion 430
References 430
Part 2. FROM SOCIETY TO BEHAVIOR: POLICY AND ACTION 434
A. Economy as a Core Society System Shaping Policy and Action that Determine Behavior 436
Chapter 32 Economic Growth as a Path Toward Poverty Reduction, Better Nutrition and Sustainable Population Growth 438
32.1 Introduction and a Definition of Terms 438
32.2 What is Needed to Accelerate and Sustain Growth? 440
32.3 Country Case Study: China and India 441
32.4 The Case of Undernutrition and Obesity 444
References 447
Chapter 33 The Human Agent, Behavioral Changes and Policy Implications 448
33.1 The Economic and Psychological View of Human Nature 448
33.2 Culture as an Economic Externality 449
33.3 A Psychologist's Explanation of Behavior 449
33.4 Happiness, or the Power of Human Adaptability 450
33.5 An Argument for Some Paternalism 451
References 452
Chapter 34 The Four Pillars of the Industrial Machine: Can the Wheels be Steered in a Healthier Direction? 454
34.1 Introduction 454
34.2 Malthus' World 455
34.3 How Nations Become Wealthy 456
34.4 The Progress of Economic Development 457
34.5 Measuring Economic Development 460
34.6 The 2 Percent Productivity Cruise Control 460
34.7 The Obesity Connection 461
34.8 The Way Forward 462
References 463
Chapter 35 Libertarian Paternalism: Nudging Individuals toward Obesity Prevention 466
35.1 Introduction 466
35.2 Biases and Shortcomings in Human Decision-making 467
35.3 On Libertarian Paternalism 469
35.4 Libertarian Paternalism Applied 471
35.5 Limitations and Conclusion 471
References 472
B. Needs and Challenges in Policy and Action to Prevent Obesity 474
Chapter 36 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic: How We Got Here and Where We Are Going 476
36.1 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic 476
36.2 How did We Get Here? 487
36.3 The Complexity of the Problem 492
References 492
Chapter 37 The Underweight/Overweight Paradox in Developing Societies: Causes and Policy Implications 494
37.1 Introduction 494
37.2 The Reasons Underlying the Underweight/Overweight "Paradox" 495
37.3 Public Policies Needed to Tackle the Coexistence of Underweight/Overweight 497
37.4 Applying the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health 499
37.5 Conclusion 499
References 499
Chapter 38 The Drivers of Body Weight, Shape and Health: An Indian Perspective of Domestic and International Influences 502
38.1 Introduction 503
38.2 Overweight and Obesity in Indian Children and Youth 503
38.3 Trends Influencing Intake 506
38.4 Trends in Energy Expenditure 511
38.5 Cross-cutting Issues 513
38.6 Conclusions 514
References 515
Chapter 39 Diets and Activity Levels of Paleolithic versus Modern Humans: Societal Implications for the Modern Overweight Pandemic 518
39.1 Introduction 518
39.2 The Four Eras of Change of Human Diets 519
39.3 Contrasting Food Intake during the Paleolithic Era versus Today 520
39.4 Energy Expenditure and Physical Inactivity 521
39.5 The Tipping Point of Energy Imbalance 522
39.6 Insights from Paleolithic Diets to Fight the Obesity Pandemic 522
References 523
C. Policy and Action to Shift the Drivers of Food Supply and Demand of the Agriculture and Agri-Food Value Chains in a Healthy Direction 526
Chapter 40 Agriculture, Food and Health 528
40.1 Introduction and Context 529
40.2 Food Consumption and Nutrition Situation 529
40.3 Agriculture–Nutrition Linkages 531
40.4 Analysis of South Asian Dietary Energy Supply and Nutrition Status 533
40.5 Dietary Transition in Asian Countries 534
40.6 The Impact of Urbanization 535
40.7 Overweight and Obesity in Asia 536
40.8 Policy Interventions 537
40.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 539
References 539
Chapter 41 Changing Food Systems in the Developing World 542
41.1 Introduction 542
41.2 Factors Driving Changes in Food Demand 543
41.3 Factors Driving Changes in Food Supply 545
41.4 Impact of Changes in Food Supply and Demand 546
41.5 The Key Role of Institutions and Research 549
References 550
Chapter 42 Green Revolution 2.5: From Crisis to a New Convergence Between Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health for Healthy Eating Worldwide 552
42.1 Introduction 553
42.2 Novel and Convergent Solutions for Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health 553
42.3 An Integrated Approach to the Food and Nutrition Value Chain 554
42.4 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing Green Revolution 2.5 556
42.5 Conclusion 559
References 559
Chapter 43 How High-level Consumer Research Can Create Low-caloric, Pleasurable Food Concepts, Products and Packages 560
43.1 Introduction 560
43.2 Where did this Systematic, RDE Approach Come From? 561
43.3 Designing the Product and Communicating It 561
References 572
Chapter 44 Reductions in Dietary Energy Density to Moderate Children's Energy Intake 574
44.1 Introduction 574
44.2 What is Energy Density? 575
44.3 Why is Energy Density Important? 576
44.4 Does Energy Density Influence Energy Intake? 576
44.5 Practical Strategies to Reduce Energy Density 578
44.6 Will Reducing the Energy Density of the Diet Benefit Every Child? 581
44.7 Future Directions in Energy Density Research 581
44.8 Conclusions 582
References 582
Chapter 45 Nurturing and Preserving the Sensory Qualities of Nature 586
45.1 Introduction 586
45.2 Determinants of Individual Food Choices and Current "Healthful Eating" Trends 588
45.3 Preserving the Natural Sensory Qualities of Food 592
References 596
Chapter 46 Aligning Pleasures and Profits: Restaurants as Healthier Lifestyle Enablers 598
46.1 Introduction 598
46.2 Industry Overview 599
46.3 Food-Away-From-Home Demand Drivers 601
46.4 How Restaurants Compete 603
46.5 Ways Forward 604
46.6 Conclusion 608
References 608
Chapter 47 A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Activities of 12 Giant Food Companies (1980–2008) in Promoting Healthy Food 610
47.1 Introduction 610
47.2 Literature Review 612
47.3 Data, Sample and Methodology 613
47.4 Results and Sensitivity Analysis 615
47.5 Conclusion 618
Appendix A 618
Appendix B 619
Appendix C 620
References 620
D. Policy and Action for Creating Families, Schools, Communities and Social Networks that Support Individual Healthy Choice 622
Chapter 48 The Injunctive and Descriptive Norms Governing Eating 624
48.1 Introduction 624
48.2 Injunctive versus Descriptive Eating Norms 624
48.3 Norms are Situational 626
48.4 Socialization and the Creation of Eating Norms 626
48.5 Norm Violations 629
48.6 The Effect of Eating Norms on Health Outcomes 631
48.7 Affecting Norms through Marketing 631
48.8 Conclusion 632
References 632
Chapter 49 Family Meal Patterns and Eating in Children and Adolescents 636
49.1 Introduction 636
49.2 Do Family Meals Promote Good Nutrition? 637
49.3 Do Family Meals Promote Healthy Weights? 640
49.4 Do Family Meals Promote Health in Overweight Children? 642
49.5 Do Family Meals have Other Benefits? 642
49.6 What are Strategies to Promote Family Meals? 643
49.7 What Actions can Communities Take to Promote Family Meals? 644
49.8 What Remains to be Learned about Family Meals? 645
References 645
Chapter 50 Social Influences on Eating in Children and Adults 648
50.1 Introduction 648
50.2 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Adults 649
50.3 Social Influence on Food Selection in Adults 651
50.4 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Children 652
50.5 Social Influences on Food Selection in Children 654
50.6 Concluding Remarks 655
References 656
Chapter 51 Church- and Other Community Interventions to Promote Healthy Lifestyles: Tailoring to Ethnicity and Culture 660
51.1 Introduction 660
51.2 Background 661
51.3 Cultural Targeting and Tailoring in Community Settings 663
51.4 Religious Organizations as Communities within Communities 667
51.5 Challenges 673
51.6 Conclusion 677
References 678
Chapter 52 On Gluttony: Religious and Philosophical Responses to the Obesity Epidemic 684
52.1 Introduction 684
52.2 What is Gluttony? 685
52.3 What is Wrong with Gluttony? 686
52.4 Conclusions 690
References 691
Chapter 53 Social Alliances: Moving Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility to Private–Public Partnerships 692
53.1 Introduction 692
53.2 Partnership in Social Alliances 693
53.3 Social Alliances as a Strategy for Corporate Branding 694
53.4 Societal Interventions as Strategic Alliances 694
53.5 The Case Study Intervention 697
53.6 Discussion of the Case Study 700
53.7 Conclusion 700
References 701
Chapter 54 Social Networks, Social Capital, and Obesity: A Literature Review 704
54.1 Definition of Terms 704
54.2 Methodology 705
54.3 Two Debates 705
54.4 Social Capital and Obesity Literature 711
54.5 Final Considerations 714
References 715
Chapter 55 From Society to Behavior: Neighborhood Environment Influences 718
55.1 Introduction 718
55.2 Identification of Neighborhoods 721
55.3 Neighborhood Boundary Definition 721
55.4 Identification and Assessment of Neighborhood Environment Characteristics 722
55.5 Findings and Limitations 723
55.6 Conclusions and Implications 726
References 727
E. Challenges and Possibilities for Policy and Action in Reducing the Social and Economic Gradients in Health, Lifestyle and Obesity 730
Chapter 56 Social Determinants of Health and Obesity 732
56.1 Introduction 732
56.2 The Social Gradient of Health 733
56.3 Obesity and the Social Gradient of Health 734
56.4 The Burden of Disease 735
56.5 The WHO Commission on the Social Determinants of Health and a Possible Explanatory Framework 737
56.6 Applying the Framework to Policy 738
56.7 Targeted and Universal Policies 740
56.8 Conclusion 741
References 742
Chapter 57 The Role of the Environment in Socio-Economic Status and Obesity 744
57.1 Introduction 744
57.2 Food Consumption 745
57.3 Physical Activity 751
57.4 Summary and Conclusions 753
References 754
Chapter 58 The Economics of Obesity: Why are Poor People Fat? 758
58.1 Introduction 758
58.2 How do People Make Food Choices? 759
58.3 Energy-dense Foods Cost Less 760
58.4 Healthier Diets Cost More 761
58.5 The Growing Price Disparity in Food Costs 763
58.6 Does Restricting Food Costs Lead to Energy-dense Diets? 765
58.7 Why are Poor People Fat? 766
58.8 Approaches to Obesity Prevention 767
References 769
F. Challenges and Possibilities for a Broad Systems Approach to Policy and Action 776
Chapter 59 Challenges in Making Broad Healthy Lifestyle Plans: Revisiting the Nature of Health Interventions 778
59.1 The Context of Non-communicable Diseases 778
59.2 The Current Health Policy Framework 779
59.3 The Need for Joined-up Policy-making 780
59.4 The WHO Global Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health 780
59.5 Improving the Global Policy Framework 782
59.6 Insights from Tobacco Control Efforts 783
59.7 Engaging the Private Sector 783
59.8 Conclusions 784
References 785
Chapter 60 Social Interactions and Obesity: An Economist's Perspective 788
60.1 Introduction 788
60.2 The Different Guises of Social Interactions 789
60.3 The Literature so Far 792
60.4 Policy Interventions Related to Social Interactions 793
60.5 Conclusions 795
References 795
Chapter 61 A Complex Systems Approach to Understanding and Combating the Obesity Epidemic 798
61.1 Introduction 798
61.2 Challenges for Study and Intervention Design 799
61.3 Complex Adaptive Systems 800
61.4 Applying a Complex Systems View to Obesity 802
61.5 Agent-based Computational Modeling 804
61.6 Conclusion 805
References 806
Chapter 62 Conclusion: A Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention: New Frontiers in Science, Policy and Action, and the Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society to Make it Possible 810
62.1 Introduction 810
62.2 New Frontiers in Science 811
62.3 New Frontiers in Policy 813
62.4 New Frontiers in Action 814
62.5 Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society 816
References 817
Index 818
A 818
B 819
C 819
D 820
E 821
F 822
G 824
H 824
I 825
J 826
K 826
L 826
M 826
N 826
O 827
P 828
Q 829
R 829
S 829
T 831
U 831
V 831
W 831
Y 832
Z 832