Nursery Rearing of Nonhuman Primates in the 21st Century (eBook)

PREFACE: OUR HISTORICAL NOTE 6
Table of Contents 10
CONTRIBUTORS 23
INTRODUCTION 27
1. GOALS 27
2. CONCEPTS 28
3. METHODS 30
4. DATA 31
5. CHAPTER ORGANIZATION 31
REFERENCES 32
SECTION ONE 33
Introduction to Section 1: The History of Nursery Rearing and a Glimpse into the Future 34
CHAPTER ONE The Effects of Rearing Experiences: The Early Years 36
1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 36
2. EARLY REARING EXPERIENCE PARADIGM: THE STUDY OF PLASTICITY 38
2.1. Total Isolation Rearing 38
2.2. Surrogate-Only Rearing 40
2.3. Partial Isolation Rearing 40
2.4. Peer-Only Rearing 41
2.5. Surrogate-Peer Rearing 42
2.6. Mother-Only Rearing 43
3. REVERSIBILITY OF NEGATIVE REARING OUTCOMES 44
3.1. Agemate Therapy 44
3.2. Adaptation Therapy 45
3.3. Attachment Therapy 45
3.4. Training Therapy 45
3.5. Younger-Monkey Therapy 46
4. FROM THE PAST TO THE PRESENT 47
REFERENCES 47
CHAPTER TWO The Changing Role of Hand Rearing in Zoo-Based Primate Breeding Programs 51
1. THE HISTORY OF HAND-REARING PRIMATES IN ZOOS 51
2. RESOCIALIZATION GOALS AND TECHNIQUES 54
3. EVALUATION OF HAND-REARED PRIMATES 56
4. SUMMARY 58
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 59
REFERENCES 59
CHAPTER THREE Animal Welfare Regulations and Nursery Rearing 62
1. HISTORY AND OVERVIEW OF REGULATIONS 62
2. CURRENT USDA REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO INFANTS 65
3. USDA DRAFT POLICY AND ASP COMMENTS 68
4. NRC-ILAR VOLUME ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF NONHUMAN PRIMATES 69
5. GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS 71
6. AAALAC INTERNATIONAL 72
7. THE AMERICAN ZOO AND AQUARIUM ASSOCIATION (AZA) 72
8. INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS 73
9. RECOMMENDATIONS 73
10. CONCLUSIONS 75
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 76
REFERENCES 76
CHAPTER FOUR Data Management for the Nonhuman Primate Nursery 78
1. INTRODUCTION 78
1.1. Historical Standards 80
2. MODERN ISSUES AND APPROACHES 82
3. ANIMAL-RECORD CONTENTS 83
4. QUALITY CONTROL 86
5. NEW TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVAL 90
6. CONCLUSIONS 92
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 92
REFERENCES 93
CHAPTER FIVE Very Early Rearing Experience: Rationale and Methodologies for Studying Prenatal Development in Nonhuman Primates 94
1. INTRODUCTION 94
2. METHODOLOGIES AND DATASETS 96
2.1. Happenstance and Evolutionary Byproduct 96
2.2. Terminal Methodologies 97
2.2.1. Accidents 97
2.2.2. End product 98
2.3. Indirect Methodologies 100
2.3.1. Chemical and Environmental Teratogens 101
2.3.2. Steroids 103
2.3.3. Prenatal Psychosocial Stress 104
2.4. Selective Breeding Studies 105
2.5. Direct Methodologies 106
2.5.1 Ultrasound 106
2.5.2. Imaging 108
2.5.3. Reproductive Technologies 109
2.5.4. Direct Fetal Access 110
2.5.5. Viral Vectors and Nanotechnology 112
3. BASIC REQUIREMENTS 114
REFERENCES 115
SECTION TWO 125
Introduction to Section 2: Methods and Outcomes for Infrequently Hand-Reared Species 126
CHAPTER SIX The Effect of Hand Rearing on the Sexual and Maternal Competence of Three Species of Lemurs, Varecia variegata, Varecia rubra, and Eulemur macaco 127
1. INTRODUCTION 127
2. METHODS 129
3. RESULTS 130
3.1. Reproductive Success: Parent-Reared and Hand-Reared Ruffed Lemurs 130
3.2. Maternal Competence: Parent-Reared and Hand-Reared Ruffed Lemurs 131
3.3. Reproductive Success: Peer versus Solitarily Hand-Reared Ruffed Lemurs 131
3.4. Maternal Competence: Peer versus Solitarily Hand-Reared Ruffed Lemurs 132
3.5. Reproductive Success: Hand-Reared and Parent-Reared Black Lemurs 132
3.6. Maternal Competence: Hand-Reared and Parent-Reared Black Lemurs 132
4. DISCUSSION 133
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 135
REFERENCES 135
CHAPTER SEVEN Nursery-Reared Prosimian Primates 137
1. INTRODUCTION 137
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 139
3. RESULTS 140
4. DISCUSSION 142
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 143
REFERENCES 143
CHAPTER EIGHT Hand Rearing of Infant Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) 146
1. INTRODUCTION 146
2. THERMOREGULATION 146
3. SURROGATES AND HOUSING 147
4. FEEDING 147
5. FEEDING SCHEDULE 149
6. FEEDING TECHNIQUE 150
7. HEALTH 150
8. WEIGHT DEVELOPMENT 151
9. REINTRODUCTION 151
REFERENCES 152
SECTION THREE 155
Introduction toSection 3: Methods and Outcomes for Frequently Hand-Reared Species 156
CHAPTER NINE Immunological Consequences of Nursery Rearing 158
1. INTRODUCTION 158
2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFANT IMMUNE SYSTEM 160
3. IMMUNE RESPONSES OF NURSERY-REARED INFANTS 161
4. IMMUNE MODULATORS IN BREAST MILK 169
5. BREAST MILK AND GUT MATURATION 170
6. TH1/TH2 173
7. TEMPERATURE AND ENTRAINMENT 174
8. CONCLUSIONS 177
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 180
9. APPENDIX 180
REFERENCES 182
CHAPTER TEN Special Challenges of Rearing Infant Macaques Infected with Lentivirus (SIV, HIV, SHIV) 192
1. INTRODUCTION 192
2. LENTIVIRUSES AND VIRAL SYMPTOMOLOGY 193
3. NEURO-AIDS NURSERY PROCEDURES 194
3.1. Personnel Safety 194
3.2. Rearing and Husbandry Protocols 196
4. NORMATIVE DATA 202
4.1. Weights and Anthropometrics 202
4.2. Data Analysis 202
5. COGNITIVE MEASURES 204
5.1. Object Concept 204
5.2. Motor Development 205
5.3. Species-Typical Behaviors 207
6. SUMMARY 208
REFERENCES 209
CHAPTER ELEVEN Nursery Rearing and Biobehavioral Organization 214
1. INTRODUCTION 214
2. BIOBEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT OF INFANTS AT THE CALIFORNIA NATIONAL PRIMATE RESEARCH CENTER (CNPRC) 216
2.1. Subjects and Living Conditions 216
2.1.1. Fieldcage-Raised (FR) Animals 216
2.1.2. Corncrib-Raised (CR) Animals 217
2.1.3. Mother-Reared (MR) Animals 217
2.1.4. Nursery-Reared (NR) Animals 217
2.2. Assessment Procedures 218
2.2.1. General Procedures 218
2.2.2. Specific Assessments 219
2.2.2a. Living Cage Observations 219
2.2.2b. Preferential Look Test 219
2.2.2c. Video Playback. 219
2.2.2d. Human Intruder Test. 220
2.2.2e. Blood Sampling. 220
2.2.2f. Novel Objects. 220
2.2.2g. Temperament Ratings. 221
2.3. Results 221
2.3.1. Living Cage Observations 221
2.3.2. Video Playback 222
2.3.3. Human Intruder 224
2.3.4. Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal Regulation 226
2.3.5. Hematology 227
2.3.6. Temperament Ratings 229
3. DISCUSSION 229
4. IMPLICATIONS 232
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 236
REFERENCES 236
CHAPTER TWELVE Neurobehavioral Assessment of Nonhuman Primate Neonates 238
1. INTRODUCTION 238
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PNNA 241
3. STUDIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 244
3.1. Comparisons of Nursery-Reared and Mother-Reared Infants 244
3.2. Effects of Prenatal Stress on Early Neurobehavior 246
3.3. Studies of Fetal Alcohol or Combined Alcohol and Prenatal Stress 252
4. STUDIES AT THE LABORATORY OF COMPARATIVE ETHOLOGY 254
4.1. General Differences from Studies at Wisconsin 254
4.2. Genetic Influence on Behavioral Development 255
4.3. Nutritional Influence on Development 258
5. SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 259
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 261
REFERENCES 261
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Is It Nutrients or Nurturing? Comparison of the Growth and Development of Mother-Reared and Laboratory-Reared Macaque Infants (Macaca nemestrina) 271
1. INTRODUCTION 271
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 274
2.1. Samples 274
2.1.1. LR Sample 274
2.1.2. MR Sample 274
2.2. Data Collection 275
2.3. Statistical Analysis 275
3. RESULTS 277
4. DISCUSSION 280
4.1. Sex Effects 280
4.1.1. Growth 280
4.1.2. Skeletal Development 281
4.2. Rearing Effects 282
4.2.1. Growth 282
4.2.2. Development 283
5. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 284
REFERENCES 286
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Baboon Nursery Rearing Practices and Comparisons between Nursery-Reared and Mother-Reared Individuals 291
1. INTRODUCTION 291
2. NURSERY-REARED VERSUS MOTHER-REARED BABOONS 292
2.1. Behavior 293
2.2. Growth and Development 295
2.3. Physiology 296
2.4. Mortality and Morbidity 297
3. VARIATION IN THE NURSERY ENVIRONMENT 300
3.1. Impact of Infant Formula Composition on Baboon Growth 301
3.2. Impact of Human Handling on Behavior 301
3.3. Impact of Socialization Program 302
4. CHANGES IN NURSERY-REARING PRACTICES OVER TIME 303
4.1. Early Published Reports 304
4.2. Changes over Time 305
4.3. Learning from History 306
5. CONCLUSIONS 306
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 307
REFERENCES 307
CHAPTER FIFTEEN Early Rearing Conditions and Captive Chimpanzee Behavior: Some Surprising Findings 311
1. INTRODUCTION 311
2. EVOLUTION OF NURSERY-REARING PRACTICES FOR CHIMPANZEES 313
3. EFFECTS OF CURRENT NURSERY PRACTICES AND OTHER EARLY REARING EXPERIENCES ON BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHIMPANZEES 314
3.1. Abnormal Behavior 315
3.2. Response to Novelty 317
3.3. Sexual Competence 319
3.4. Maternal Competence 320
3.5. Maternal Response to Separation from Offspring 323
4. CONCLUSIONS 324
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 328
REFERENCES 328
CHAPTER SIXTEEN Effects of Early Rearing History on Growth and Behavioral Development in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) 335
1. INTRODUCTION 335
2. METHODS 339
2.1. Housing and Husbandry 339
2.1.1. Nursery Housing 339
2.1.2. Nursery Husbandry 339
2.1.3. Colony Housing 341
2.1.4. Colony Husbandry 342
2.2. Data Collection and Analysis 343
2.2.1. Growth 343
2.2.2. Positional Behavior 344
2.2.3. Solitary and Social Behavior 346
2.2.4. Behavior at Final Maternal Separation 347
3. RESULTS 349
3.1. Growth 349
3.2. Positional Behavior 349
3.3. Solitary and Social Behavior 350
3.4. Behavior at Final Maternal Separation 353
4. DISCUSSION 357
5. APPENDIX 360
5.1. Ethogram of Maternal Separation Behaviors 360
5.1.1. Agitation 360
5.1.2. Protest 361
5.1.3. Despair/Depression 361
5.1.4. Subtle Agitation 362
5.1.5. Coping Behaviors 362
5.1.6. Normal Behaviors 362
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 363
REFERENCES 363
SECTION FOUR 373
Introduction to Section 4: Nursery Care Methodology and Testing Techniques for the Future 374
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Squirrel Monkeys as an Example of Primate Nursery Medicine 376
1. INTRODUCTION 376
2. PREVENTIVE MEDICINE CONCEPTS FOR THE NURSERY 377
2.1. Nursery Design 377
2.2. Nursery Quality Control 378
2.3. Nursery Staffing 378
2.4. Nursery Hygiene, Disinfection, and Vermin Control 378
2.5. Nursery Records and Quality Control 380
3. THE SQUIRREL MONKEY NURSERY 381
3.1. Admission 381
3.2. Feeding and Nutrition 382
3.3. Medical Procedures 383
3.3.1. Temperature Measurement 383
3.3.2. Auscultation 384
3.3.3. Blood Collection 384
3.3.4. Anesthesia 384
3.4. Common Health Problems in Squirrel Monkey Infants 385
3.4.1. Prematurity 385
3.4.2. Bacterial, Yeast, and Viral Infections 385
3.4.3. Herpesvirus Saimiri Type 1 (HVS-1) 386
3.4.4. Trauma 386
3.4.5. Hypoglycemia 386
3.4.6. Hypothermia 387
3.4.7. Failure to Thrive Syndrome 388
3.4.8. Synthetic Fiber Gastric Foreign Bodies 388
4. CONCLUSION 389
REFERENCES 389
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN Nursery Care of At-Risk Nonhuman Primates 392
1. INTRODUCTION 392
2. CRITICAL FACTORS IN CARE OF HIGH-RISK NEONATES 393
2.1. Hypothermia and Respiratory Abnormalities 394
2.1.1. Incubator Methods 395
2.1.2. Heating Pads 396
2.1.3. Oxygen Support Therapy 396
2.1.4. Prematurity and Hyaline Membrane Disease 396
2.1.5. Feeding 397
2.1.5a. Gavage Feeding 398
2.1.5b. Self-Feeding 401
2.1.6. Neonatal Weight Loss and Gain 404
3. POSTINCUBATOR HOUSING 407
4. CAUSES OF DEATH 407
5. CONCLUSION 410
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 410
REFERENCES 410
CHAPTER NINETEEN A Quick and Effective Method for Establishing Self-Feeding in Stump-Tailed Macaques (Macaca arctoides) 412
1. INTRODUCTION 412
2. NURSERY FACILITY 413
3. SELF-FEEDING 414
3.1. Effects of Preparation for Self-Feeding 415
3.2. Comparative Outcomes of Feeding Methods 418
4. CONCLUSION 420
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 421
REFERENCES 421
CHAPTER TWENTY Saliva as a Medium for Assessing Cortisol and Other Compounds in Nonhuman Primates:Collection, Assay, and Examples 424
1. BACKGROUND 425
1.1. Free Cortisol in Saliva 427
1.2. Other Compounds in Saliva 428
2. METHODS FOR COLLECTING SALIVA FROM NONHUMAN PRIMATES 430
3. FACTORS THAT AFFECT SALIVARY HORMONES 432
4. APPLICATION OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 435
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 443
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 443
REFERENCES 444
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE The SPIT Method for Simultaneous and Unobtrusive Collectionof Salivary Cortisol from Individually Housed Infant Monkeys 449
1. INTRODUCTION 449
1.1. Ethics, Logistics, and Stress 450
1.2. The Current State of the Art 452
1.2.1. Saliva Collection Apparatuses 453
1.2.2. Cotton Roll Preparation 455
2. THE SPIT METHOD 456
2.1. The SPIT Apparatus 456
2.2. The SPIT Sticks 458
3. APPLICATION OF THE SPIT METHOD 461
3.1. Standard Operating Procedure 461
3.2. Viability of the SPIT Method 463
3.2.1. Subject Participation 464
3.2.2. Sample Quality 465
3.2.3. Circadian and Longitudinal Dynamics of Salivary Cortisol 466
4. DISCUSSION 472
4.1. Variations on a Theme 473
4.2. Limitations and Future Directions 474
5. CONCLUSION 475
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 475
REFERENCES 476
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO Actimetry Measurement of Behavioral Regulation and Sleep Cycles in Infant Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) 481
1. INTRODUCTION 481
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 485
2.1. Subjects 485
2.2. Apparatus 486
2.2.1. Actiwatch® 486
2.2.2. Harness 486
2.2.3. Actiwatch/Harness Interface 488
2.2.4. Application of the Interface 488
2.3. Data Analysis 488
2.3.1. Selection of Recording Interval 488
2.3.2. Export of Data from Actimeter to Software 490
2.3.3. Data Analysis for Nursery-Reared Group Comparisons 490
3. RESULTS 491
3.1. Preliminary Assessment of Automated Recording Method 491
3.2. Comparison of SPR and PR Monkeys 492
4. DISCUSSION 497
5. SUMMARY 500
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 501
REFERENCES 501
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Noninvasive Neuroimaging Techniques for the Study of Primate Brain Development 505
1. INTRODUCTION 505
2. ANATOMICAL IMAGING 506
2.1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 506
2.2. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) 512
2.3. Manganese Imaging 514
3. FUNCTIONAL IMAGING 515
3.1. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 515
3.1.1. [18F]FDG PET 515
3.1.2. 15O Water PET 520
3.1.3. Receptor and Transporter Imaging with PET 521
3.2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 523
4. CONCLUSIONS 526
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 527
5. REFERENCES 527
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR Tethering with Maternal and Fetal Catheterization as a Model for Studying Pre- to Postnatal Continuities 532
1. WHAT IS TETHERING? 532
2. EFFECTS OF TETHERING 533
2.1. Maternal Effects 534
2.1.1. Subjects 534
2.1.2. Procedures 535
2.1.3. Analysis and Results 536
3. MATERNAL AND FETAL CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTIONING 542
3.1. Prenatal Stress and the Origins of Infant Reactivity and Sensitivity to the Environment 545
3.1.1. Fetal Conditioning 549
4. TETHERING WITH MATERNAL AND FETAL CATHETERIZATION FOR THE FUTURE 550
REFERENCES 551
SECTION FIVE 556
Introduction to Section 5: Hematology and Serum Chemistry Values 557
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE Hematology and Serum Chemistry in Young Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) 559
1. INTRODUCTION 559
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 561
2.1. Mother-Reared Chimpanzees 561
2.2. Nursery-Reared Chimpanzees 562
2.3. H/SCC Reference Intervals 563
2.4. H/SCC Analysis 565
3. RESULTS 565
4. DISCUSSION 565
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 593
REFERENCES 593
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX Hematology and Serum Chemistry Reference Values for Rhesus Macaque (Macacamulatta) Infants 595
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN Hematology and Serum Chemistry Reference Values for Pigtailed Macaque (Macacanemestrina) Infants 600
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 608
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT Hematology and Serum Chemistry Reference Values for Mother-Reared Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) Infants 609
INDEX 612

"Squirrel Monkeys as an Example of Primate Nursery Medicine (p. 355-356)

Alan G. Brady, Susan V. Gibson, Lawrence E. Williams, and Christian R. Abee

1. INTRODUCTION

Providing nursery care for infant primates is one of the most challenging aspects of maintaining primates in captivity. Nursery infants must be protected from and treated for the many health problems to which they are vulnerable. At the same time, their developmental needs must be met through proper nutrition, environmental enrichment, and other strategies. Primates are notoriously bad patients, and primate infants are arguably even worse.

They can deteriorate rapidly when ill or injured, and they are susceptible to a variety of secondary problems such as electrolyte disturbances, malnutrition, and infection once a primary health problem occurs. For this reason, the emphasis in this chapter is on preventive medicine: creating a nursery that is conducive to preventing health problems before they start. Essentials of such a nursery include a healthy environment, quali?ed and motivated staff, good nutrition, and a program for the prevention of infectious disease.

2. PREVENTIVE MEDICINE CONCEPTS FOR THE NURSERY

2.1. Nursery Design

Primate nursery facilities vary widely according to amount of use, species involved, and other factors. Some amount to little more than an infrequently used part of a housing or clinical facility while others are dedicated, purpose-designed facilities that are in constant use. Certain components are useful in any primate nursery and may be developed, more or less, depending on functional requirements, budget, and other factors.

These components include infant housing (which may include housing for dams and foster dams), separate storage areas for diet, medication, and supplies, hand-feeding area, space for updating and storing animal records, and a break room for staff. Speci?cations for infant housing are beyond the scope of this chapter but may be found in other references (Anderson, 1986). Food and supply storage should be convenient to work areas and limited to quantities that will be used quickly.

Long-term storage should be located elsewhere. Refrigerated storage for medications or chemicals should be separate from storage for infant formula and diets to avoid contamination (National Research Council, 1996). Records of each animal’s growth and development, health status, treatments, and related documents are an important part of nursery operations. Space should be allowed for completion and storage of records, and for ready access to the records at all times, as required by the Animal Welfare Act of the United States (USDA, 1982).

A separate break room for staff is important because the ready transmission of a variety of diseases between humans and primates makes exclusion of human food from the nursery a necessity (Jordan et al., 1985; National Research Council, 1996). Staff need a break room particularly during hours when the institution’s cafeteria or canteen is closed."