Physical Geography (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Physical Geography: Made Simple 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 8
Preface 6
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 16
Recent Trends in Physical Geography 17
Models and Systems 19
Suggested Further Reading 23
PART ONE: LANDFORMS 25
CHAPTER TWO. ROCKS AND RELIEF 25
Crustal Structure and Movement 25
Major Tectonic Landforms 28
Rock Structures and Landforms 31
Rock Type and Landforms 34
Suggested Further Reading 37
CHAPTER THREE. WEATHERING 38
Physical Weathering 38
Chemical Weathering 40
Conclusion 43
Suggested Further Reading 43
CHAPTER FOUR. SLOPES 44
The Measurement and Description of Slopes 44
Approaches to Slope Studies 46
Slopes as Open Systems 46
Mass Movements 47
Run–off on Slopes 50
Controls on Slope Processes 51
Slope Evolution 54
Suggested Further Reading 56
CHAPTER FTVE. RIVERS AND DRAINAGE BASINS 57
Hydrology 57
Water Flow in Rivers 59
Transport, Erosion and Deposition 61
The Long Profile 65
Channel Patterns 66
The River Basin 68
Suggested Further Reading 71
CHAPTER SIX. GLACIAL AND PERIGLACIAL LANDFORMS 72
Ice and Glaciers 72
Glacial Erosion 74
Glacial Deposition 79
Other Effects of Glaciation 82
Periglacial Phenomena 83
Suggested Further Reading 87
CHAPTER SEVEN. DESERT AND TROPICAL LANDFORMS 88
Deserts 88
The Humid Tropics 93
Suggested Further Reading 96
CHAPTER EIGHT. COASTAL FEATURES 97
Factors Affecting Coasts 98
Shoreline Processes 99
Cliffs and Platforms 101
Beaches 104
Low-energy Coasts 107
Coral Coasts 108
Coastal Classification 109
Suggested Further Reading 110
CHAPTER NINE. LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT 111
Reconstructing Landscape Development 111
Cyclic and Non-cyclic Development 111
Pianation Surfaces as Indicators of Landscape Development 114
Landscape Development in the Pleistocene 116
Suggested Further Reading 120
PART TWO: WEATHER AND CLIMATE 122
CHAPTER TEN. THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS ENERGY 122
The Nature of the Atmosphere 122
Atmospheric Energy 124
Air Temperatures 130
Suggested Further Reading 134
CHAPTER ELEVEN. MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE 135
Humidity and its Expression 135
Evaporation and Condensation 137
Adiabatic Processes 138
Stability and Instability 140
Clouds and Fog 142
Precipitation 145
Thunderstorms 146
World Precipitation 149
Suggested Further Reading 149
CHAPTER TWELVE. AIR MOTION 150
Pressure Variations 150
Forces Governing Air Movement 152
Upper Air Motion 156
Suggested Further Reading 160
CHAPTER THIRTEEN. THE GENERAL CIRCULATION 161
The Planetary Wind Belts 161
The Mechanics of the Circulation 163
Surface Features and the Circulation 168
The Role of the Monsoon 170
Suggested Further Reading 171
CHAPTER FOURTEEN. WEATHER 172
Air Mass Weather 172
Fronts 175
Frontal Depressions 177
Non-Frontal Depressions 181
Anticyclones 183
Weather Prediction 184
Suggested Further Reading 186
CHAPTER FIFTEEN. CLIMATIC TYPES 187
Climatic Classification 187
1. Equatorial Zone 190
2. Tropical Summer Rain Zone 190
3. Subtropical Dry Zone 194
4. Subtropical Winter Rain Zone 195
5. Temperate Zone 196
6. Subpolar Zone 201
7· High Polar Zone 202
Suggested Further Reading 203
CHAPTER SIXTEEN. LOCAL CLIMATE 204
The Climatic Effects of Relief 204
The Climatic Effects of Water Bodies 208
The Climatic Effects of Vegetation 208
Urban Climates 210
The Climate Nearest the Ground 213
Suggested Further Reading 213
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN. CLIMATIC CHANGE 214
The Climatic Record 214
Causes of Climatic Change 218
Conclusions 222
Suggested Further Reading 222
PART THREE: SOILS, PLANTS AND ANIMALS 224
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN. SOILS 224
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Soils 224
Factors Controlling Soil Formation 230
The Classification of Soils 233
World Pattern of Soils 236
Suggested Further Reading 238
CHAPTER NINETEEN. THE WORKING OF ECOSYSTEMS 239
The Structure of Ecosystems 239
The Trophic Structure of Ecosystems 241
Energy Flow and the Standing Crop 241
Productivity 243
Ecological Niche and Species Structure 244
Nutrient Cycles 246
Succession and Climax 248
Suggested Further Reading 250
CHAPTER TWENTY. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS 251
The Concept of Tolerance 251
Light 252
Temperature 255
Water 257
Wind 260
Topography 260
Edaphic Factors 261
Biotic Factors 262
Suggested Further Reading 264
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE. DISPERSAL AND ADAPTATION 265
Sources of Variation 265
Natural Selection 266
Adaptive Radiation 268
The Formation of New Species 269
Migration and Dispersal 270
The Pattern of Evolution 272
Suggested Further Reading 276
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO. THE HISTORICAL FACTOR IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES 277
The Distant Past 277
Pleistocene Changes 280
Post-Glacial Vegetation Change in Britain 283
Suggested Further Reading 287
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE. MAJOR NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS 288
Forest Ecosystems 288
Grassland Ecosystems 292
Biological Deserts 295
The Marine Ecosystem 300
Suggested Further Reading 303
PART FOUR. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND MAN 304
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR. HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 304
Modification of Landforms 304
Modification of the Atmosphere 309
Modification of Ecosystems 312
Suggested Further Reading 315
CHAPTER TWENTY-FTVE. APPLIED PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 316
Environmental Hazards 316
Environmental Management 318
Economic Value 321
Resource Evaluation 322
Suggested Further Reading 323
APPENDIX: THE GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE 324
INDEX 328