Investigating Radicalization Trends (eBook)

Preface 7
Acknowledgements 9
People 9
Projects 10
Organisations 10
Contents 11
About the Editors 13
Chapter 1: Introduction 15
1.1 Contextual Challenges of Modern Radicalisation 15
1.2 Contributions to Overcoming CVE Challenges 18
1.3 Chapter Summary 19
1.3.1 Chapter 2: Security and European Polarisation 19
1.3.2 Chapter 3: The Radicalisation-Factor Model (RFM): Proposing a Framework for the Systematic Investigation and Modelling of Online Radicalisation 19
1.3.3 Chapter 4: The So-Called ‘Lone Wolf’ Phenomenon 19
1.3.4 Chapter 5: Cyber Intelligence Against Radicalisation and Violent Extremism 20
1.3.5 Chapter 6: Testing for Reliability of the TARGET Threat Analysis Instrument (TTAI): An Interdisciplinary Instrument for the Analysis of School Shooting Threats 20
1.3.6 Chapter 7: Counter-Radicalisation Strategies: An Analysis of German and French Approaches and Implementations 20
1.3.7 Chapter 8: Radicalisation: No Prevention Without ‘Juridicalisation’ 20
1.3.8 Chapter 9: Countering Radicalisation in the United Kingdom: A Community-Based Approach 21
1.3.9 Chapter 10: Enhancing Community Resilience: Assessing the Role That Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Law Enforcement (LEA) Staff Associations and Networks Can Play in the Fight Against Radicalisation 21
1.3.10 Chapter 11: The ‘Choice to Challenge’ Extreme Views in the Classroom? Counter-Radicalisation and the Prevent Agenda in the University Context 21
1.3.11 Chapter 12: Mothers’ Agency as an Alternative to the War on Terror 22
References 22
Chapter 2: Security and European Polarisation 24
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Ways in Which Polarisation Takes Place 26
2.2.1 Political Polarisation 26
2.2.2 Social Polarisation 27
2.2.3 Economic Polarisation 28
2.2.4 Technological and Information Polarisation 29
2.3 Security and European Polarisation 32
2.4 Addressing the Polarisation in Europe 36
2.5 Conclusions 38
References 38
Chapter 3: The Radicalisation-Factor Model (RFM): Proposing a Framework for the Systematic Investigation and Modelling of Online Radicalisation 41
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Defining Radicalisation 43
3.3 The Radicalisation-Factor Model 45
3.4 Application of the Framework 48
3.5 Conclusions 49
References 50
Chapter 4: The So-Called ‘Lone Wolf’ Phenomenon 52
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Case Studies 54
4.2.1 German Case Study: Anis Amri 54
4.2.2 Canadian Case Study: Marc Lépine 55
4.2.3 US Case Study: Ted Kaczynski 56
4.2.4 Norwegian Case Study: Anders Behring Breivik 57
4.2.5 Russian Case Study: Dmitry Vinogradov 58
4.2.6 Tunisian Case Study: Seifeddine Rezgui Yacoubi 58
4.3 Findings 59
4.4 Discussion 61
References 63
Chapter 5: Cyber Intelligence Against Radicalisation and Violent Extremism 65
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Concepts 66
5.2.1 Radicalisation Online 66
5.2.2 Cyber Intelligence 68
5.3 A Cyber Intelligence Process to Tackle Radicalisation Online 70
5.3.1 Cybersecurity Models Applied 70
5.3.1.1 The Cyber Kill Chain 71
5.3.1.2 The Diamond Model 72
5.3.2 Countering Violent Extremism Models 74
5.3.3 Model Proposed 76
5.4 Designing Cyber CVE Evidence-Based Policies 78
5.5 Conclusions 87
References 87
Chapter 6: Testing for Reliability of the TARGET Threat Analysis Instrument (TTAI): An Interdisciplinary Instrument for the Analysis of School Shooting Threats 91
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 Current Approaches for the Evaluation of the Seriousness of a Threat 93
6.3 The TARGET Threat Analysis Instrument (TTAI) 95
6.3.1 Structure of the TTAI 96
6.3.1.1 Offence 98
6.3.1.2 Unit A: Information About Recent Threat 99
6.3.1.3 Unit B: Information About Previous Threats 100
6.3.2 Interrater Reliability (IRR) 101
6.4 Method 101
6.4.1 Raters 101
6.4.2 Materials 102
6.4.3 Procedure 102
6.4.4 Statistical Analyses 103
6.5 Results 103
6.5.1 IRR Testing Phase 1 104
6.5.2 IRR Testing Phase 2 104
6.6 Discussion 104
6.7 Limitations 106
6.8 Implications and Future Directions 106
References 107
Chapter 7: Counter-Radicalisation Strategies: An Analysis of German and French Approaches and Implementations 111
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Insights from Previous Research 114
7.3 Data and Methods 116
7.4 Findings 118
7.4.1 Germany 118
7.4.1.1 Socio-Legal and Policy Discourses and Developments 118
7.4.1.2 Implementations on the Ground 119
7.4.2 France 121
7.4.2.1 Socio-Legal and Policy Discourses and Developments 121
7.4.2.2 Implementations on the Ground 122
7.5 Discussion and Conclusion 124
References 128
Chapter 8: Radicalisation: No Prevention Without ‘Juridicalisation’ 133
8.1 Correctionalism, Monitoring and Deradicalisation 133
8.2 The Historical Perspective 135
8.2.1 The Common Passion for Profiling 136
8.3 The Contradictions in Current Prevention 139
8.3.1 Prevention and Deradicalisation Tools 139
8.3.2 Risks for Criminal and Intelligence Analysis 149
8.3.3 Security and Intelligence First? 150
8.3.4 When Risk Assessments Replace the Law 156
8.4 Divorce Between Prevention and Law 164
8.4.1 Prevention of Radicalisation: Quality of the Law and Predictability of Measures 164
8.4.1.1 Prohibition of Interference 167
8.4.1.2 Quality of the Law 167
8.4.1.3 Foreseeability 168
8.4.2 Quality of the Law 169
8.4.3 Predictability and Risk of Abuse 169
8.4.4 Procedural Defects 171
8.4.5 Risk of an Institutional Mess 172
8.4.6 Rights of Radicalisation Suspects 175
8.5 Discussion 180
References 185
Chapter 9: Countering Radicalisation in the United Kingdom: A Community-Based Approach 189
9.1 Introduction 189
9.2 Contextual Analysis: Muslim Communities in the UK 192
9.2.1 Western Views Toward Muslims 193
9.3 Radicalisation: A Conceptual Confusion 195
9.3.1 Problematising the Concept of Radicalisation 197
9.4 Radicalisation: A Conceptual Framework 198
9.4.1 The Root Causes of Radicalisation 198
9.4.2 Religious Influence and Ideologies 199
9.4.3 Political Justifications 201
9.4.4 Socio-Political Discrimination 202
9.5 Community-Based Resilience: A Response to Radicalisation 204
9.5.1 Section One: A Denial of Popular Support and Ideological Legitimacy 205
9.5.2 Section Two: Winning Hearts and Minds 207
9.5.3 Section Three: Integration and Connection with Non-integrative Enclaves 210
9.6 Discussion 214
References 215
Chapter 10: Enhancing Community Resilience: Assessing the Role That Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Law Enforcement (LEA) Staff Associations and Networks Can Play in the Fight Against Radicalisation 225
10.1 Introduction 225
10.2 Defining Community Resilience 227
10.2.1 Community Capabilities 229
10.2.2 Cultural Competence 230
10.3 Engaging Communities to Foster Resilience Against Radicalisation 231
10.4 ‘Race’ and Criminal Justice 234
10.5 UK Minority Ethnic Police Officers Involvement in Counter-Radicalisation 235
10.6 The UK Black and Muslim Police Associations and Networks 237
10.7 Discussion 239
References 241
Chapter 11: The ‘Choice to Challenge’ Extreme Views in the Classroom? Counter-Radicalisation and the Prevent Agenda in the University Context 246
11.1 Introduction 246
11.2 The Choice to Challenge Extreme Views in the Classroom 248
11.3 The Context of Our Recommendation for Stronger Duty to Challenge on Academics 250
11.4 The Prevent Duty and Controversy Around Human Rights Issues Following the 2015 Reforms 254
11.5 The View on Prevent, and Prevent Training, from Students and Staff in One Academic Department 261
11.5.1 A Discussion of Our Survey Results 261
11.5.2 Discrimination 262
11.5.3 Censorship and Self-Censorship 262
11.5.4 Necessity 263
11.5.5 Student Vulnerability 264
11.5.6 A Need for Support and Clarity in Approach 264
11.5.7 Raising Awareness and the Need for Critical Education on the Detail of Prevent 264
11.6 A Discussion of the Responses to Our Survey 265
11.7 The Bigger Picture 266
11.8 Discussions 267
Bibliography 268
Chapter 12: Mothers’ Agency As an Alternative to the War on Terror 270
12.1 Why Mothers? 270
12.1.1 Fighting Terror 271
12.1.2 Understanding Terror 273
12.1.3 Preventing Terror 273
12.1.4 One Step Deeper: What Triggers the Trigger? 275
12.1.5 Identity Formation Is Part of Family Life 276
12.2 Asking Mothers 278
12.2.1 Mothers’ Fears 279
12.2.2 Mothers’ Trust 279
12.2.3 Mothers’ Needs 280
12.3 The Mother Schools Model 281
12.3.1 Developing Self-Confidence in a Safe Space 283
12.3.2 Child Development in Context 283
12.3.3 Building Relationships and Including Fathers 285
12.4 Conclusions 285
References 286
Index 290