Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Perspectives (eBook)

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Israel Gilead, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; Michael D. Green, Wake Forest University School of Law, Winston-Salem, USA; Bernhard A. Koch, Innsbruck University, Austria.

General Report: Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Report 21
I. Introduction 21
1. Meaning and Definition of Proportional Liability in the Project 21
2. Causal Proportional Liability Contrasted with Proportional Liability Among Multiple Tortfeasors Based on Contributory (Comparative) Negligence 23
3. The Aim of This Project 24
4. Structure 28
II. Categories of Proportional Liability 30
1. Why Categorize? 30
2. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 32
A. Sub-category A1 – ‘alternative liability’ – indeterminate tortfeasors 32
B. Sub-category A2 – ‘market-share liability’ – causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims 33
C. Sub-category A3 – ‘pollution or drug cases’ – indeterminate victims 33
D. Sub-category A4 – ‘The hard case’ 34
E. Sub-category A5 – ‘lost chances’ 34
3. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 35
A. Sub-category B1 – all parts of P’s harm were caused by liable Ds 35
B. Sub-category B2 – some parts of P’s harm were caused by other factors 36
4. Category C – Unrealized Risks with Potential for Future Harms 36
5. Category D – ‘Combination Cases’ 37
III. Policy Considerations 37
IV. Burden and Standard of Proof 40
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 42
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 43
A. Analysis 43
B. A1 cases in comparison 45
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 46
A. Analysis 46
B. A2 cases in comparison 50
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 51
A. Analysis 51
B. A3 cases in comparison 54
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 55
A. Analysis 55
B. A4 cases in comparison 58
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 59
A. Analysis 59
B. A5 cases in comparison 63
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 64
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 65
A. Analysis 65
B. B1 cases in comparison 67
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 68
A. Analysis 68
B. B2 cases in comparison 69
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 70
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 71
A. Analysis 71
B. C1 cases in comparison 72
2. Sub-Category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 74
A. Analysis 74
B. C2 cases in comparison 75
VIII. Category D – ‘Combination Cases’ 76
1. On the meaning of combination cases 76
2. How to cope with ‘combination cases’ 77
IX. Summary and Conclusions 78
1. How to Approach CPL Issues? 79
2. The Relevant Factual Effects of CPL 79
3. Normative Considerations 81
4. On the Cautious Monitored Development of CPL 82
5. On the Comparative Landscape 84
6. On Future Developments 86
Categories of Proportional Liability 89
Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 89
Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 89
Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 89
Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 90
Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 90
Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 91
Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 91
Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 91
Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 92
Category C – Risks of Future Harm 92
Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 93
Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 93
Category D – ‘Combination Cases’ 93
Country Reports 95
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Austria 97
I. Standard of Proof 97
II. The Discussion of Proportional Liability in Austria 99
A. The Starting Point – Multiple Tortfeasors under the ABGB 99
B. Alternative Causes 100
1. Alternative External Causes 100
2. Alternative External Causes Competing with Risks within the Victim’s own Sphere 103
C. Other Instances of Causal Uncertainty 107
1. Alternative Victims 107
2. Minimal Causation 108
3. Loss of a Chance 108
4. Market-Share Liability 110
D. The Two Drafts of a Tort Law Reform – One Step Forward and Two Steps Back 110
III. The Case Hypotheticals from an Austrian Perspective 112
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 112
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 112
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 112
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 113
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 113
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 113
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 114
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 114
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 115
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 115
D. Category D – ‘Combination Cases 116
IV. Summary 116
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the Czech Republic 119
I. Definition of Proportional Liability 119
A. Introduction 119
B. Legal Provisions of Substantive Law 119
1. Provisions on Multiple Tortfeasors 119
2. Causation 121
3. Provisions on Proportional Liability 124
II. Policy Consideration 125
III. Burden of Proof 126
A. Legal Provisions 126
B. Possible Changes 128
IV. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 130
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 130
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 131
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 131
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 133
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 133
V. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 134
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 134
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 135
VI. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 136
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 136
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 136
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Denmark 137
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in England and Wales 141
I. Introduction 141
Meaning of ‘Proportional Liability’ 141
II. Proportional Liability: The Fairchild Exception 142
A. Starting Points 142
B. Orthodox Approach to Alternative Causes 143
C. Fairchild and beyond 144
III. The Categories of Proportional Liability 148
A. Alternative Liability (Unidentified Tortfeasor) 148
B. ‘Market-Share Liability’ (A Closed Set of Tortfeasors and Victims) 148
C. Pollution and Drug Cases (Unidentified Victim) 149
D. Increased Risk 150
E. The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 151
F. Certain Causation – Uncertain Extent (Only Tortious Causes) 154
G. Certain Causation – Uncertain Extent (Tortious and Non-Tortious Causes) 155
H. Causal Uncertainty as to Future Harm 156
IV. Concluding Remarks 159
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in France 161
I. Introduction 161
II. Burden and Standard of Proof 161
III. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 163
1. Sub-Category A4 – A5: The ‘Hard Case’ and Lost Chances 163
2. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 164
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 167
4. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 167
IV. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 168
V. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 170
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 171
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 171
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Germany 173
I. Definition of Proportional Liability 173
II. Categories of Proportional Liability 175
III. Policy Considerations 175
1. Deterrence 176
2. Justice/Fairness 177
3. Reduction of Administrative Costs 178
4. Further Policy Considerations 178
IV. Burden of Proof 178
1. In General 178
2. Standard of Proof 179
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 180
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 180
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 181
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 182
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 182
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 183
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 183
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 183
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 184
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 184
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 184
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 184
VIII. Category D – ‘Combination Cases 185
IX. Conclusions 185
1. In General 185
2. The Relevant Factual Effects of Proportional Liability 185
(a) Gainers and Losers 185
(b) Effect on Incentives 186
(c) Number of Suits 187
(d) Costs of Suits 187
(e) Informational Difficulties 188
(f) Distribution of Probabilities 188
(g) Degree of Fault 188
(h) Degree of Uncertainty 188
3. Policy Considerations 188
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Greece 191
I. Introduction 191
General Definition 191
II. Policy Considerations 193
III. Burden and Standard of Proof 193
IV. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 194
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 194
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 195
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 196
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 197
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 198
V. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 199
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 199
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 199
VI. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 200
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 200
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 201
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Israel 203
I. Introduction 203
II. The Malul Case 203
III. Burden and Standard of Proof 205
IV. Categorisation 206
V. Policy Considerations 207
VI. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 208
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 208
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 209
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 210
4. Sub-Categories A4 and A5 – ‘Hard Cases’ and ‘Lost Chances’ 211
Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 212
Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 213
VII. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 214
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 214
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 215
VIII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 216
IX. Concluding Remarks 217
Proportional Liability in Uncertain Settings: Is it Precautionary? Italian Insights and Comparative Policy Considerations 219
I. In Search of a Definition for Proportional Liability 219
A. Introduction 219
B. The Standard of Proof 221
C. Reasons to Introduce a Rule of Proportional Liability and Policy Related Implications 223
II. In Search of Instances for Proportional Liability 226
A. The First Category of Proportional Liability (and Tools Aiming to Achieve Similar Objectives): Uncertainty Regarding the Link Between Defendant’s Conduct and Harm. 226
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 226
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 231
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 232
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 232
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 233
B. Some Insights on Proportional Liability and Uncertainty 235
C. The Second Category of Proportional Liability: Indeterminate Parts of Harm 239
D. The Third Category of Proportional Liability: Uncertain Materialisation of Risk 240
III. In Search of a Reasonable Proportional Liability Rule for Uncertain Settings 243
Going Dutch: How to Address Cases of Causal Uncertainty 247
I. Preface 247
II. An All-or-Nothing External Liability Paired with an Internal Proportional Apportionment 248
III. The Reversal of the Burden of Proof 252
IV. The Theory of the Loss of a Chance: A Step Closer towards Accepting Proportional Liability 252
V. Proportional Liability: No Longer an ‘Internal Matter’ 255
VI. Proportional Liability Confirmed 260
VII. Follow-up case law 262
VIII. Concluding Remarks 265
Annex: Short answers to the cases from a Dutch perspective 266
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Norway 269
Existing Solutions to the Various Categories 271
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Poland 273
I. Introduction 273
II. General Remarks on Causation and Burden of Proof in Polish Law 274
A. Causation 274
B. Burden of Proof 276
III. The Way to the Coronation of the Rule of Joint and Several Liability in Polish Law 279
A. The Rise and Fall of Proportional Liability in Polish Law 279
B. The Main Characteristics of Joint and Several Liability 281
IV. Possible Application of Proportional Liability – Specific Categories 282
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 282
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 282
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 284
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 285
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 286
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 288
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 290
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 290
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Nontortious Factors 293
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 294
D. Category D – Combination Cases 296
V. Final Observations 298
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in South Africa 303
I. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 303
A. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 303
B. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 305
C. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 306
D. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 307
E. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 308
II. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 309
A. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 309
B. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 310
III. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 312
A. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 312
B. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 312
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Spain 315
I. Introduction 315
A. The proof of causation under Spanish Law 315
B. Procedural means to overcome uncertainty 316
C. The notion of ‘proportional liability’ in current Spanish law 317
D. Policy considerations in the Spanish debate 319
II. Categories of proportional liability 320
A. Uncertainty about past harm 320
1. Indeterminate tortfeasors (‘alternative liability’) 320
2. Causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims (‘market-share liability’) 324
3. Indeterminate Victim (‘Pollution or Drug Cases’) 326
4. The ‘Hard Case’ category 326
5. The ‘Loss of Chance’ Doctrine 329
B. Indeterminate Parts of Harm 332
1. All the parts of the harm were caused by a group of tortious defendants 332
2. Part of the harm caused by contributory negligence of the victim or by a non-tortious factor 334
C. Unrealised risks of future harm 335
D. Combination cases 337
III. Final remarks 338
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Switzerland 343
I. Definition of Proportional Liability 343
II. Categories of Proportional Liability 345
III. Policy Considerations 346
IV. Burden and Standard of Proof 348
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 350
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 350
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 351
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 352
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 353
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 353
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 356
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 356
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors 357
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 357
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 357
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 358
VIII. Category D – Combination Cases 359
IX. Conclusions 360
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the US 363
I. Burden and Standard of Proof 363
II. The Meaning of Proportional Liability 363
III. Scholarly Treatment of Proportional Liability in the US 364
IV. Policy Considerations 371
V. The Categories of Proportional Liability 373
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm 373
1. Introduction 373
2. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor 376
3. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims 377
4. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims 377
5. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’ 380
6. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine 382
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm 385
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors 385
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Nontortious Factors 387
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm 388
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely 388
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain 389
List of Contributors 391
Index 393