Environmental and Pollution Science (eBook)
552 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-049479-1 (ISBN)
Environmental and Pollution Science, Second Edition, provides the latest information on the environmental influence of a significant number of subjects, and discusses their impact on a new generation of students.
This updated edition of Pollution Science has been renamed to reflect a wider view of the environmental consequences we pay as a price for a modern economy. The authors have compiled the latest information to help students assess environmental quality using a framework of principles that can be applied to any environmental problem.
The book covers key topics such as the fate and transport of contaminants, monitoring and remediation of pollution, sources and characteristics of pollution, and risk assessment and management. It contains more than 400 color photographs and diagrams, numerous questions and problems, case studies, and highlighted keywords.
This book is ideally suited for professionals and students studying the environment, especially as it relates to pollution as well as government workers and conservationists/ecologists.
* Emphasizes conceptual understanding of environmental impact, integrating the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and mathematics* Topics cover the fate and transport of contaminants; monitoring and remediation of pollution; sources and characteristics of pollution; and risk assessment and management
* Includes color photos and diagrams, chapter questions and problems, and highlighted key words
Dr. Ian Pepper is currently a Professor at the University of Arizona. He is also Director of the University of Arizona, Environmental Research Laboratory (ERL) and the NSF Water and Environmental Technology (WET) Center. Dr. Pepper is an environmental microbiologist specializing in the molecular ecology of the environment. His research has focused on the fate and transport of pathogens in air, water, soils and wastes. His expertise has been recognized by membership on six National Academy of Science Committees and former memberships on an EPA FIFRA Science and Advisory Panel. Dr. Pepper is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Academy of Microbiology, the Soil Science Society of America, and the American Society of Agronomy. He is also a Board Certified Environmental Scientist within the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists. He is the author or co-author of six textbooks; 40 book chapters; and over 180 peer-review journal articles.
Environmental and Pollution Science, Second Edition, provides the latest information on the environmental influence of a significant number of subjects, and discusses their impact on a new generation of students. This updated edition of Pollution Science has been renamed to reflect a wider view of the environmental consequences we pay as a price for a modern economy. The authors have compiled the latest information to help students assess environmental quality using a framework of principles that can be applied to any environmental problem. The book covers key topics such as the fate and transport of contaminants, monitoring and remediation of pollution, sources and characteristics of pollution, and risk assessment and management. It contains more than 400 color photographs and diagrams, numerous questions and problems, case studies, and highlighted keywords. This book is ideally suited for professionals and students studying the environment, especially as it relates to pollution as well as government workers and conservationists/ecologists. - Emphasizes conceptual understanding of environmental impact, integrating the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and mathematics- Topics cover the fate and transport of contaminants; monitoring and remediation of pollution; sources and characteristics of pollution; and risk assessment and management- Includes color photos and diagrams, chapter questions and problems, and highlighted key words
Cover 1
Table of Contents 8
Preface 16
The Editors 18
Contributing Authors 19
The Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science (SWES) 21
Part 1: Processes Affecting Fate and Transport of Contaminants 22
Chapter 1. The Extent of Global Pollution 24
1.1 Science and Pollution 25
1.2 Global Perspective of the Environment 26
1.3 Pollution and Population Pressures 27
1.4 Overview of Environmental Characterization 29
1.5 Advances in Analytical Detection Technology 31
1.6 The Risk Based Approach to Pollution Science 31
1.7 Waste Management, Site Remediation, and Ecosystem Restoration 33
References and Additional Reading 33
Chapter 2. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Soils and the Subsurface 34
2.1 Soil and Subsurface Environments 35
2.2 Solid Phase 35
2.3 Gaseous Phase 41
2.4 Liquid Phase 42
2.5 Basic Physical Properties 42
Questions and Problems 44
References and Additional Reading 44
Chapter 3. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Waters 45
3.1 The Watery Planet 46
3.2 Unique Properties of Water 47
3.3 Mechanical Properties 48
3.4 The Universal Solvent 49
3.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 53
3.6 Light in Aquatic Environments 54
3.7 Oceans 55
3.8 Lakes and Reservoirs„The Lentic System 56
3.9 Streams and Rivers„The Lotic System 58
3.10 Groundwater„Water in the Subsurface 59
3.11 A Watershed Approach 65
Questions and Problems 65
References and Additional Reading 66
Chapter 4. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of the Atmosphere 67
4.1 Chemical Composition 68
4.2 Physical Properties and Structure 70
Questions and Problems 78
References and Additional Reading 78
Chapter 5. Biotic Characteristics of the Environment 79
5.1 Major Groups of Organisms 80
5.2 Microorganisms in Surface Soils 84
5.3 Microorganisms in the Subsurface 90
5.4 Biological Generation of Energy 90
5.5 Soil as an Environment for Microbes 91
5.6 Activity and Physiological State of Microbes in Soil 93
5.7 Enumeration of Soil Bacteria via Dilution and Plating 94
5.8 Microorganisms in Air 94
5.9 Microorganisms in Surface Waters 97
Questions and Problems 98
References and Additional Reading 98
Chapter 6. Physical Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate 99
6.1 Contaminant Transport and Fate in the Environment 100
6.2 Contaminant Properties 101
6.3 Advection 102
6.4 Dispersion 103
6.5 Mass Transfer 104
6.6 Transformation Reactions 104
6.7 Characterizing Spatial and Temporal Distributions of Contaminants 104
6.8 Estimating Phase Distributions of Contaminants 106
6.9 Quantifying Contaminant Transport and Fate 107
Questions and Problems 108
References and Additional Reading 109
Chapter 7. Chemical Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate 110
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Basic Properties of Inorganic Contaminants 111
7.3 Basic Properties of Organic Contaminants 115
7.4 Sorption Processes 118
7.5 Abiotic Transformation Reactions 122
Questions and Problems 125
References and Additional Reading 125
Chapter 8. Biological Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate 126
8.1 Biological Effects on Pollutants 127
8.2 The Overall Process of Biodegradation 127
8.3 Microbial Activity and Biodegradation 129
8.4 Biodegradation Pathways 133
8.5 Transformation of Metal Pollutants 138
Questions and Problems 141
References and Additional Reading 141
Part 2: Monitoring, Assessment, and Regulation of Environmental Pollution 142
Chapter 9. Physical Contaminants 144
9.1 Particle Origins 145
9.2 Particle Size 145
9.3 Particles in Air or Aerosols 146
9.4 Particulates in Water 149
9.5 Summary 151
Questions and Problems 152
References and Additional Reading 152
Chapter 10. Chemical Contaminants 153
10.1 Introduction 154
10.2 Types of Contaminants 154
10.3 Sources: Agricultural Activities 154
10.4 Sources: Industrial and Manufacturing Activities 159
10.5 Sources: Municipal Waste 159
10.6 Sources: Service-Related Activities 161
10.7 Sources: Resource Extraction/Production 162
10.8 Sources: Radioactive Contaminants 162
10.9 Natural Sources of Contaminants 164
Questions and Problems 164
References and Additional Reading 164
Chapter 11. Microbial Contaminants 165
11.1 Water-Related Microbial Disease 166
11.2 Classes of Diseases and Types of Pathogens 167
11.3 Types of Pathogenic Organisms 168
11.4 Sources of Pathogens in the Environment 184
11.5 Fate and Transport of Pathogens in the Environment 186
11.6 Standards and Criteria for Indicators 187
Questions and Problems 189
References and Additional Reading 189
Chapter 12. The Role of Environmental Monitoring in Pollution Science 191
12.1 Introduction 192
12.2 Sampling and Monitoring Basics 192
12.3 Statistics and Geostatistics 193
12.4 Sampling and Monitoring Tools 194
12.5 Soil and Vadose Zone Sampling and Monitoring 197
12.6 Groundwater Sampling and Monitoring 198
12.7 Surface Water Sampling and Monitoring 200
12.8 Atmosphere Sampling and Monitoring 200
12.9 Conclusions 202
Questions and Problems 203
References and Additional Reading 203
Chapter 13. Environmental Toxicology 204
13.1 History of Modern Toxicity in the United States 205
13.2 Toxic Versus Nontoxic 205
13.3 Exposure and Dose 205
13.4 Evaluation of Toxicity 207
13.5 Responses to Toxic Substances 214
13.6 Carcinogens 218
13.7 Mutagens 220
13.8 Teratogens 221
13.9 Chemical Toxicity: General Considerations 222
13.10 Chemical Toxicity: Selected Substances 223
Questions and Problems 232
References and Additional Reading 232
Chapter 14. Risk Assessment 233
14.1 The Concept of Risk Assessment 234
14.2 The Process of Risk Assessment 236
14.3 Ecological Risk Assessment 244
14.4 Microbial Risk Assessment 246
Questions and Problems 252
References and Additional Reading 252
Chapter 15. Environmental Laws and Regulations 254
15.1 Regulatory Overview 255
15.2 The Safe Drinking Water Act 255
15.3 The Clean Water Act 255
15.4 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act 258
15.5 Federal Insecticide and Rodenticide Act 259
15.6 Clean Air Act 259
15.7 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 260
15.8 The Pollution Prevention Act 260
15.9 Other Regulatory Agencies and Accords 260
Questions and Problems 261
References and Additional Reading 261
Part 3: Land and Water Pollution Mitigation 262
Chapter 16. Soil and Land Pollution 264
16.1 Introduction 265
16.2 Surface Mining 265
16.3 Deforestation 266
16.4 Soil Acidity„Salinity 267
16.5 Soil Erosion 268
16.6 Agricultural Activities 270
16.7 Animal Wastes 274
16.8 Industrial Wastes With High Salts and Organics 275
16.9 Invasive Species 276
Questions and Problems 278
References and Additional Reading 279
Chapter 17. Subsurface Pollution 280
17.1 Groundwater as a Resource 281
17.2 Groundwater Pollution 282
17.3 Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment 286
17.4 Point-Source Contamination 288
17.5 Diffuse-Source Contamination 293
17.6 Other Groundwater Contamination Problems 296
17.7 Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 298
Questions and Problems 299
References and Additional Reading 299
Chapter 18. Surface Water Pollution 300
18.1 Surface Freshwater Resources 301
18.2 Marine Water Resources 301
18.3 Sources of Surface Water Pollution 302
18.4 Sediments as Surface Water Contaminants 303
18.5 Metals as Surface Water Contaminants 305
18.6 Nutrients and Eutrophication of Surface Waters 307
18.7 Organic Compounds in Water 315
18.8 Enteric Pathogens as Surface Water Contaminants 317
18.9 Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) 321
18.10 Quantification of Surface Water Pollution 321
18.11 Determining BOD 325
18.12 Dilution of Effluents 327
18.13 Dye Tracing of Plumes 329
18.14 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Plume 330
18.15 Compliance Monitoring 331
Questions and Problems 332
References and Additional Reading 332
Chapter 19. Soil and Groundwater Remediation 333
19.1 Introduction 334
19.2 Superfund Process 334
19.3 Site Characterization 335
19.4 Remediation Technologies 339
Questions and Problems 354
References and Additional Reading 354
Chapter 20. Ecosystem Restoration and Land Reclamation 355
20.1 Introduction 356
20.2 Site Characterization 356
20.3 Site Restoration 357
20.4 Site Monitoring 357
20.5 Approaches to Ecosystem Restoration 358
20.6 Land Reclamation 360
Questions and Problems 369
References and Additional Reading 369
Part 4: Atmospheric Pollution 370
Chapter 21. Sensory Pollutants, Electromagnetic Fields and Radiofrequency Radiation 372
21.1 Introduction 373
21.2 Heat 373
21.3 Light 375
21.4 Noise Pollution 377
21.5 Odor as a Sensory Pollutant 380
21.6 Electromagnetic Fields and Radiofrequency 381
Questions and Problems 385
References and Additional Reading 385
Chapter 22. Indoor Air Quality 386
22.1 Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality 387
22.2 Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants 387
22.3 Factors Influencing Exposure to Indoor Air 392
22.4 Monitoring IAQ 395
Questions and Problems 396
References and Additional Reading 397
Chapter 23. Atmospheric Pollution 398
23.1 Air Pollution Concepts 399
23.2 Sources, Types, and Effects of Air Pollution 400
23.3 Weather and Pollutants 409
23.4 Pollution Trends in the United States 413
Questions and Problems 414
References and Additional Reading 414
Chapter 24. Global Change 416
24.1 Introduction 417
24.2 Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect 418
24.3 Other Global Changes 424
24.4 Solutions to the Problems of Global Environmental Change 430
Questions and Problems 432
References and Additional Reading 432
Part 5: Waste and Water Treatment and Management 434
Chapter 25. Industrial and Municipal Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal 436
25.1 Introduction 437
25.2 Relevant Regulations for Industrial and Municipal Solid Wastes 438
25.3 Major Forms of Industrial Wastes 438
25.4 Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Wastes 440
25.5 Reuse of Industrial Wastes 444
25.6 Treatment and Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste 445
25.7 Pollution Prevention 447
Questions and Problems 448
References and Additional Reading 449
Chapter 26. Municipal Wastewater Treatment 450
26.1 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage) 451
26.2 Modern Wastewater Treatment 453
26.3 Oxidation Ponds 460
26.4 Septic Tanks 462
26.5 Land Application of Wastewater 464
26.6 Wetlands and Aquaculture Systems 466
26.7 Sludge Processing 467
Questions and Problems 470
References and Additional Reading 471
Chapter 27. Land Application of Biosolids and Animal Wastes 472
27.1 Biosolids and Animal Wastes: A Historical Perspective and Current Outlook 473
27.2 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage) 473
27.3 Wastewater (Sewage) Treatment 474
27.4 Methods of Land Application of Biosolids 474
27.5 Benefits of Land Application of Biosolids 477
27.6 Hazards of Land Application of Biosolids 478
27.7 Sources of Animal Wastes 485
27.8 Nonpoint Versus Point Source Pollution 486
27.9 Benefits of Land Application of Animal Wastes 486
27.10 Hazards of Land Application of Animal Wastes 487
27.11 Public Perceptions of Land Application 487
Questions and Problems 488
References and Additional Reading 488
Chapter 28. Drinking Water Treatment and Water Security 489
28.1 Water Treatment Processes 490
28.2 Disinfection 492
28.3 Factors Affecting Disinfectants 493
28.4 Halogens 498
28.5 Disinfection By-Products 499
28.6 Residential Water Treatment 499
28.7 Water Security 503
28.8 Monitoring Community Water Quality 506
Questions and Problems 506
References and Additional Reading 507
Part 6: Emerging Issues in Pollution Science 508
Chapter 29. Genetically Engineered Crops and Microbes 510
29.1 Introduction to Nucleic Acids 511
29.2 Recombinant DNA Technology 511
29.3 Transfer of Nucleic Acid Sequences from One Organism to Another (Cloning) 511
29.4 Chemical Synthesis, Sequencing and Amplification of DNA 513
29.5 Heterologous Gene Expression in Pro- and Eukaryotes 514
29.6 Genetically Engineered Plants for Agriculture 515
29.7 Genetically Engineered Plants for Remediation 516
29.8 Microbial-Assisted Remediation 517
29.9 Potential Problems Due to Genetically Modified Organisms 518
29.10 Summary 519
Questions and Problems 519
References and Additional Reading 519
Chapter 30. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Gene Transfer 520
30.1 Why Are Antibiotics An Issue? 521
30.2 Classification and Function of Antibiotics 521
30.3 Development of Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance 522
30.4 Transfer of Genetic Material by Horizontal Gene Transfer 522
30.5 Prevalent Environments Favoring HGT 522
30.6 Isolation and Detection of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria 523
30.7 Incidence of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Various Environments 523
30.8 Gene Transfer Between Bacteria„How Prelevant Is It? 525
30.9 Summary and Conclusions 526
Questions and Problems 526
References and Additional Reading 526
Chapter 31. Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disruptors 527
31.1 Endocrine Disruptors and Hormones 528
31.2 Significance of EDCs in Water 528
31.3 Incidence of EDCs in Water 529
31.4 Fate and Transport of Estrogenic Compounds in Municipal Wastewater 532
31.5 Methods for Measuring Estrogenic Activity in Water 533
31.6 What are the Risk of EDCs? 535
Questions and Problems 536
References and Additional Reading 536
Chapter 32. Epilogue: Is the Future of Pollution History? 537
32.1 The Role of Government in Controlling Pollution 538
32.2 Research Priorities Necessary to Protect Human Health 538
32.3 Pollution Prevention of Earth, Air, and Water 538
32.4 Is the Future of Pollution History? 539
References and Additional Reading 541
Index 542
CHAPTER 1 THE EXTENT OF GLOBAL POLLUTION
I.L. Pepper, C.P. Gerba, M.L. Brusseau
Pollution is ubiquitous, and can even cause beautiful sunsets.
Photo courtesy Ian Pepper.
1.1 SCIENCE AND POLLUTION
Pollution is ubiquitous and takes many forms and shapes. For example, the beautiful sunsets that we may see in the evening are often due to the interaction of light and atmospheric contaminants, as illustrated above.
Pollution can be defined as the accumulation and adverse affects of contaminants or pollutants on human health and welfare, and/or the environment. But in order to truly understand pollution, we must define the identity and nature of potential contaminants. Contaminants can result from waste materials produced from the activity of living organisms, especially humans. However, contamination can also occur from natural processes such as arsenic dissolution from bedrock into groundwater, or air pollution from smoke that results from natural fires. Pollutants are also ubiquitous in that they can be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. Information Box 1.1 presents the major categories of pollutants and their predominant routes of human exposure. Clearly, many of the agents identified in Information Box 1.1 occur directly through activities such as mining or agriculture. But in addition, pollution is also produced as an indirect result of human activity. For example, fossil fuel burning increases atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and increases global warming. Other classes of pollutants can occur due to poor waste management or disposal, which can lead to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in water. Some examples of microbial pathogens and associated diseases are shown in Table 1.1. Another example of pollution due to human activity is accidental spillage of organics that can be toxic, such as chlorinated solvents or petroleum hydrocarbons that contaminate groundwater. Some common contaminants that find their way into the environment, with the potential to adversely affect human health and welfare, are shown in Table 1.2.
INFORMATION BOX 1.1
TABLE 1.1 Recently discovered microbes that have had a significant impact on human health.
| AGENT | MODE OF TRANSMISSION | DISEASE / SYMPTOMS |
|---|
| Rotavirus | Waterborne | Diarrhea |
| Legionella | Waterborne | Legionnaire’s disease |
| Escherichia coli O157:H7 | Foodborne Waterborne | Enterohemorrhagic fever, kidney failure |
| Hepatitis E virus | Waterborne | Hepatitis |
| Cryptosporidium | Waterborne | Diarrhea |
| Foodborne |
| Calicivirus | Waterborne | Diarrhea |
| Foodborne |
| Helicobacter pylori | Foodborne | Stomach ulcers |
| Waterborne |
| Cyclospora | Foodborne | Diarrhea |
| Waterborne |
TABLE 1.2 Common organic and inorganic contaminants found in the environment.
| CHEMICAL CLASS | FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE |
|---|
| Gasoline, fuel oil | Very frequent |
| Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | Common |
| Creosote | Infrequent |
| Alcohols, ketones, esters | Common |
| Ethers | Common |
| Chlorinated organics | Very frequent |
| Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) |
| Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) | Infrequent |
| Nitroaromatics (TNT) | Common |
| Metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn) | Common |
| Nitrate | Common |
From Environmental Microbiology © 2000, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
In this textbook, we will discuss these major sources of pollution in a science-based context, hence the name: Environmental and Pollution Science (Information Box 1.2).
INFORMATION BOX 1.2
Environmental and Pollution Science is the study of the physical, chemical, and biological processes fundamental to the transport, fate, and mitigation of contaminants that arise from human activities as well as natural processes.
The focus of the text will be to identify the basic scientific processes that control the transport and fate of pollutants in the environment. We will also try to define the potential for adverse effects to human health and welfare, and the environment using a risk-based approach. Finally, we will present real world “case studies.” The diverse nature of the scientific disciplines needed to study pollution science are shown in Information Box 1.3. It is the holistic integration of these diverse and complex entities that presents the major challenge to understanding both “Environmental and Pollution Science.”
INFORMATION BOX 1.3
1.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The environment plays a key role in the ultimate fate of pollutants. The environment consists of land, water, and the atmosphere. All sources of pollution are initially released or dumped into one of these phases of the environment. As pollutants interact with the environment, they undergo physical and chemical changes, and are ultimately incorporated into the environment. The environment thus acts as a continuum into which all waste materials are placed. The pollutants, in turn, obey the second law of thermodynamics: matter cannot be destroyed; it is merely converted from one form to another. Thus, taken together, the way in which substances are added to the environment, the rate at which these wastes are added, and the subsequent changes that occur determine the impact of the waste on the environment. It is important to recognize the concept of the environment as a continuum, because many physical, chemical, and biological processes occur not within one of these phases, such as the air alone, but rather at the interface between two phases such as the soil/water interface.
The concept of the continuum relies on the premise that resources are utilized at a rate at which they can be replaced or renewed, and that wastes are added to the environment at a rate at which they can be assimilated without disturbing the environment. Historically, natural wastes were generated that could easily be broken down or transformed into beneficial, or at least benign, compounds. However, post-industrial contamination has resulted in the formation of xenobiotic waste—compounds that are foreign to natural ecosystems and that are less subject to degradation. In some cases, natural processes can actually enhance the toxicity of the pollutants. For example, organic compounds that are not themselves carcinogenic can be microbially converted into carcinogenic substances. Other compounds, even those not normally considered pollutants, can cause pollution if they are added to the environment in quantities that result in high concentrations of these substances. An excellent example here is nitrate fertilizer, which is often added to soil at high levels. Such nitrates can end up in drinking water supplies and cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby disease) in newborn infants (see Chapter 16).
Some pollutants, such as microbial pathogens, are entirely natural and may be present in the environment at very low concentrations. Even so, they are still capable of causing pathogenic diseases in humans or animals. Such natural microorganisms are also classified as pollutants, and their occurrence within the environment needs to be carefully controlled.
1.3 POLLUTION AND POPULATION PRESSURES
To understand the relationship between population and pollution, let us examine a typical curve for the growth of a pure culture of bacteria in a liquid medium (Figure 1.1). Early on, the bacteria growing in the medium do not increase significantly in number, due to low population densities, which results in organisms operating as separate entities. This initial low-growth phase is known as the lag period. Next, the number of organisms increases exponentially for a finite period of time. This phase of growth is known as the exponential phase or log phase. After this exponential phase of growth, a stationary phase occurs, during which the total number of organisms remains constant as new organisms are constantly being produced while other organisms are dying....
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 9.8.2011 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Sachbuch/Ratgeber |
| Medizin / Pharmazie | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften | |
| Recht / Steuern ► EU / Internationales Recht | |
| Recht / Steuern ► Öffentliches Recht ► Umweltrecht | |
| Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-049479-X / 008049479X |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-049479-1 / 9780080494791 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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