Environmental Change and Food Security in China (eBook)

Acknowledgements 7
Note on Names 8
Contents 9
List of Figure 15
List of Tables 16
Chapter 1 17
Introduction 17
1.1 The Problem of Food Security and Environmental Change 17
1.1.1 Definitions and Global Dimensions 18
1.1.2 The Importance of China to Global Food Security 19
1.2 Plan of the Book 20
1.3 Food Security in Traditional China 22
1.3.1 Food Production Regions 22
1.3.2 Food Production in China’s Pre-history 24
1.3.3 Primary Environmental Stressors in the Dynastic Era (211 BC–1912) 25
1.3.3.1 Population Growth 25
1.3.3.2 Natural Disasters 26
1.3.3.3 Insect Pests and Plant Diseases 26
1.3.3.4 Deforestation 27
1.3.3.5 Climate Change 27
1.3.4 Imperial Responses 28
1.3.4.1 Irrigation Systems 29
1.3.4.2 Flood Control 30
1.3.4.3 Imperial Granaries 30
1.3.4.4 The Grand Canal 31
1.3.4.5 Trade Flows 31
1.3.4.6 Mobilization Capacity 31
1.4 Food Security in the Republican Period: 1912–1949 32
1.4.1 Difference of Environmental Stressors 32
1.4.2 Changes from Imperial Policy 33
1.5 Conclusion 34
Chapter 2 35
Communist Rule and the Food Security Situation 35
2.1 Establishment of the Command Economy, 1949–1978 35
2.1.1 Central Planning of Agricultural Production 36
2.1.2 Ideological Control of Plan Targets and Methods 36
2.2 Policy Choices and Impacts on Agricultural Production 37
2.2.1 Early Land Reform and Collectivization 37
2.2.2 The Great Leap Forward (1958–1960) 39
2.2.3 The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) 39
2.3 Policy Reforms, 1978–2009 41
2.3.1 Introduction of Production Incentives 42
2.3.2 Grain Sales and Changing State Intervention 43
2.3.3 Improvements in Infrastructure 46
2.3.4 Opening to the World 48
2.4 China’s Current Food System 49
2.4.1 The Food on China’s Tables 49
2.4.1.1 Plant Foods 50
Animal Foods 52
2.4.2 Degree of Food Sufficiency 53
2.4.3 Regional and Income Variations 55
2.4.4 Changes in Food Preferences 57
2.5 Conclusions 58
Chapter 3 61
Immediate Environmental Stressors on Food Security* 61
3.1 How Much Arable Land Does China Have? 61
3.2 Causes of Arable Land Loss 63
3.2.1 Population Growth and Pressure 64
3.2.2 Urbanization 65
3.2.3 Economic Development 66
3.3 Effects of Socioeconomic Change 68
3.3.1 Land Degradation 68
3.3.1.1 Erosion 69
3.3.1.2 Deforestation 71
3.3.1.3 Desertification 72
3.3.1.4 Land Pollution 74
3.3.1.5 Air Pollution 75
3.3.2 Degradation of China’s Waters 76
3.3.2.1 Water Sufficiency 76
3.3.2.2 Water Pollution 79
3.3.2.3 Ocean Pollution 84
3.4 State Responses to Environmental Stressors 85
3.4.1 Restriction on Arable Land Conversion 85
3.4.2 China’s One-Child Policy 89
3.4.3 State Investments in Irrigation Systems 90
3.4.4 Large-Scale Dam Construction 90
3.4.5 The South–North Water Diversion Project 92
3.4.6 Large-Scale Afforestation and Reforestation Projects 93
3.4.7 Restoration of Forests and Grasslands 94
3.5 Conclusions: Overall Impacts on Current Food Security 97
Chapter 4 99
Near-Term Environmental Stressors: Climate Change 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 China’s Energy Policy 103
4.2.1 Reliance on Coal 104
4.2.2 Toxic Emissions 104
4.2.3 Energy Efficiency 105
4.2.4 Alternate Energy Strategies 106
4.3 China’s Traditional Agriculture and Climate Change 108
4.3.1 Wet Rice Cultivation 108
4.3.2 Livestock Production 109
4.3.3 Other Agricultural Factors 109
4.4 Natural Climate Cycles 110
4.5 Observed Climate Change Effects 111
4.5.1 Temperature Changes 112
4.5.2 Precipitation Changes 114
4.5.3 Surface Evaporation Changes 114
4.5.4 Sunshine Duration 115
4.5.5 Wind Speed Changes 115
4.6 Correlation of Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events 116
4.6.1 Floods 116
4.6.2 Drought 118
4.6.3 Heat Waves 120
4.6.4 Rising Sea Level 121
4.6.5 Typhoons 122
4.6.6 Other Extreme Weather Events 122
4.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Agricultural Production 123
4.7.1 Impacts on Rice Production 126
4.7.2 Wheat Production 126
4.7.3 Maize Production 127
4.7.4 Cotton Production 128
4.7.5 Mitigation Difficulties 128
4.8 Conclusions 131
Chapter 5 133
Plant Diseases, Pests and Food Security 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 Definition of Primary Concepts 134
5.3 Economic Impact of Diseases and Insect Pests on Food Production 136
5.4 Diseases and Insect Pests of Historical and Contemporary Importance 138
5.4.1 Migratory Locusts (Locusta migratoria) 138
5.4.2 Rice Blast Disease 142
5.4.3 Wheat Rust Diseases 145
5.5 Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases and Insect Pests 146
5.5.1 Rice Diseases and Insect Pests 146
5.5.1.1 Rice Sheath Blight 147
5.5.1.2 Bacterial Blight 147
5.5.1.3 Bacterial Leaf Streak 148
5.5.1.4 Rice Stripe Disease 149
5.5.1.5 Rice Brown Planthopper and Smaller Brown Planthopper (Gray Leafhopper) 149
5.5.1.6 Rice Leaf Folder 150
5.5.1.7 Striped Rice Borer 150
5.5.2 Wheat Diseases and Pests 151
5.5.2.1 Wheat Powdery Mildew 151
5.5.2.2 Wheat Sharp Eyespot 152
5.5.2.3 Wheat Yellow Mosaic Virus and Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus 152
5.5.2.4 Greenbug and Other Wheat Aphids 153
5.5.2.5 Wheat Midge 153
5.5.3 Diseases and Insect Pests on Corn 154
5.5.3.1 Northern and Southern Corn Leaf Blight 154
5.5.3.2 Asian Corn Borer and Yellow Peach Moth 155
5.5.4 Potato Diseases and Insect Pests 156
5.5.4.1 Potato Late Blight Disease 156
5.5.4.2 Bacterial Ring Rot 157
5.5.4.3 Potato Viruses 157
5.5.5 Important Soybean Diseases and Pests 158
5.5.5.1 Soybean Rust 158
5.5.5.2 Soybean Aphid and Mosaic Virus 159
5.5.5.3 Sclerotinia Stem Rot 160
5.5.5.4 Soybean Cyst Nematode 160
5.6 Plant Pathogens Affecting Crop Yield and Human/Animal Health 161
5.6.1 Rice False Smut 161
5.6.2 Wheat Scab 161
5.6.3 Maize Ear, Kernel Rot and Post-harvest Diseases 162
5.7 Effects of Social and Environmental Changes on Diseases and Pests 163
5.7.1 Agricultural Cultural Practices 163
5.7.2 Government Policy 164
5.7.3 Improvement of Domestic Transportation 165
5.7.4 Climate Change 165
5.8 Control Measures 166
5.8.1 Regulatory Controls 167
5.8.2 Cultural Control Measures 167
5.8.3 Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance 168
5.8.4 Biological Controls 169
5.8.5 Physical Control Means 170
5.8.6 Chemical Control Measures 170
5.9 Conclusions 172
Chapter 6 173
Invasive Species and Food Security 173
6.1 Introduction 173
6.2 Nature of Invasive Species 174
6.2.1 Definitions 174
6.2.2 Transmission of Invasive Species 175
6.2.3 Valorization of Invasive Species 176
6.3 Invasive Species with Impacts on Food Production 176
6.3.1 Plant Species 177
6.3.2 Insect Species 178
6.3.3 Fish Species 178
6.3.4 Other Species 179
6.4 Immediate Environmental Stressors as Causes of the Unintentional Transmission of Invasive Species 181
6.4.1 Socio-Economic Change 181
6.4.2 Improved Domestic Transportation Systems 182
6.4.3 Increased International Trade and Tourism 182
6.5 Climate Change and Invasive Species 184
6.6 Responses to Spread of Invasive Species in China 185
6.6.1 Global Recommendations 186
6.6.2 Law and Regulations on Invasive Species 186
6.6.3 Mitigation Measures 188
6.6.3.1 Physical Control 188
6.6.3.2 Biological Control 189
6.6.3.3 Chemical Control 189
6.6.3.4 Integrated Pest Management 190
6.6.4 Future Directions 190
6.7 Conclusions 191
Chapter 7 193
Biotechnological Responses to Food Security Needs 193
7.1 Introduction 193
7.2 The Development of Biotechnology in China 194
7.2.1 Motivations 194
7.2.2 Organization and Funding of Agricultural Biotechnology Research 196
7.2.3 Role of the Private Sector in Agricultural Biotechnology 197
7.2.4 China’s Importation of GMOs: The Case of Soybeans 198
7.3 The “Success Story” of Bt Cotton 199
7.3.1 Development of Bt Cotton 200
7.3.2 Initial Impacts of Bt Cotton 201
7.3.3 Potential Problems in Bt Cotton Production 202
7.4 Approval of Other Crop and Plant Species 203
7.5 The Special Case of Genetically-Modified Rice 204
7.5.1 Development and Testing of Bt Rice 204
7.5.2 The Promise of Bt Rice 205
7.5.3 Resistance to Commercialization of Bt Rice 207
7.6 Biosafety Concerns About GMOs 209
7.6.1 Global Resistance to GMOs and the Cartageña Protocol 209
7.6.2 Lack of Elite Consensus 211
7.6.3 Limited Public Information on GMOs 212
7.7 China’s Biosafety Regime 213
7.7.1 Origin of the Biosafety Regime 213
7.7.2 Structure of the Regime 215
7.7.3 Biosafety Implementation 216
7.8 Conclusions 217
Chapter 8 221
The Legal and Institutional Framework to Address Food Security Needs 221
8.1 Introduction 221
8.2 Constitutional and Legal Provisions 222
8.2.1 The 1982 Constitution 222
8.2.2 Framework of Laws 223
8.2.3 Regulations and Policies 224
8.3 Central Ministries 226
8.3.1 Agencies Emphasizing Food Production 226
8.3.2 Agencies Emphasizing Food Consumption 228
8.3.3 Agencies Emphasizing System-Wide Control Functions 229
8.3.4 Related Agencies 231
8.4 Devolution of Functions to Sub-national Governments 232
8.4.1 Grants of Authority 232
8.4.2 Coordination Methods 234
8.5 Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Food Security 237
8.5.1 The NGO Environment in China 238
8.5.2 Greenpeace’s Food Security Campaigns in China 240
8.5.3 Activities of Other NGOs 241
8.6 China’s New Food Safety Regime 244
8.6.1 Tainted Products 244
8.6.2 Revisions to the Structure of the Food Safety Regime 247
8.6.3 Revision to Laws and Regulations on Food Safety 248
8.6.4 Corrective Measures 250
8.6.5 More Tainted Products 253
8.7 Conclusions 257
Chapter 9 259
Issues in Implementing Food Security in China 259
9.1 Introduction 259
9.2 The Knowledge Base 260
9.2.1 The Structure of Knowledge Concerning the Food System 260
9.2.2 Budget Allocations for Research and Development 262
9.2.3 Knowledge of China’s Farming Population 263
9.3 Challenges To Administrative Coordination 264
9.3.1 Horizontal Coordination 265
9.3.2 Vertical Coordination 266
9.4 Modernization of China’s Agricultural Infrastructure 267
9.5 Poverty Alleviation and Food Security 269
9.5.1 Poverty Reduction from the Late 1970s to the Present 269
9.5.2 Government Poverty Alleviation Programs 271
9.5.3 Challenges for Future Poverty Alleviation Policies 273
9.6 Limited Opportunities for Public Participation 275
9.6.1 Media Reportage of Environmental and Food Security Issues 276
9.6.2 Impediments to the Development of Civil Society 277
9.6.3 Citizen Protests 278
9.7 International Challenges 279
9.7.1 China’s Trade in Agricultural Products 279
9.7.2 Issues Related to China’s Entrance to the WTO 281
9.7.3 Compliance with Other International Conventions 284
9.8 Conclusions 285
Chapter 10 287
Summary and Conclusions 287
10.1 Observations 291
10.1.1 Priority of Food Security 291
10.1.2 Changing Definition of Food 292
10.1.3 Comparative Advantage and Food Security 293
10.1.4 Contradictions of Policy 294
10.1.5 The Role of Science 296
10.1.6 The Role of Crises 297
10.1.7 Domestic Economic Challenges: The Nungmingong (Farmer-workers) 298
10.1.8 Domestic Political Challenges to Food Security 299
10.1.9 International Challenges to Food Security 300
10.1.10 Environmental Challenges to Food Security 301
Selected Bibliography 303
Index 317