Animal Growth Regulation

1 Placental Regulation of Fetal Growth.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Placental Anatomy and Pattern of Blood Flow.- 3. Placental Growth.- 4. Growth of Uteroplacental Blood Flow.- 5. Regulation of Blood Flow.- 6. Placental Transport.- 7. Hormone Secretion.- 8. Conclusions.- References.- 2 Endocrinology of Bone Formation.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Unique Aspects of Bone Physiology.- 1.2. Bone Structure.- 1.3. Methods of Investigating Bone Formation.- 2. Hormones.- 2.1. Somatomedins.- 2.2. PTH.- 2.3. Vitamin D.- 2.4. Calcitonin.- 2.5. Insulin.- 2.6. Thyroid Hormones.- 2.7. Sex Steroids.- 2.8 Glucocorticoids.- 3. Local Regulators of Bone Formation.- 3.1. Prostaglandins.- 3.2. Noncollagen Proteins.- 3.3. Growth Factors.- References.- 3 Endocrine Regulation of Adipogenesis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Insulin.- 3. Growth Hormone.- 4. Insulinlike Growth Factors.- 5. Glucocorticoids.- 6. Indomethacin, Prostaglandins, and AMP.- 7. Thyroid Hormones.- 8. Cachectin.- 9. Autocrine Control.- 10. Perspectives on Integrated Endocrine Control.- References.- 4 Autocrine, Paracrine, and Endocrine Regulation of Myogenesis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Muscle Structure.- 3. Myogenesis.- 4. Factors Affecting Myogenesis.- 4.1. Insulinlike Growth Factors (Somatomedins).- 4.2. Insulin.- 4.3. Transforming Growth Factor-? (TGF-?) (Differentiation Inhibitor).- 4.4. Transferrin.- 4.5. Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF).- 4.6. Somatotropin.- 4.7. Glucocorticoids.- 4.8. Thyroid Hormone.- 5. Summary.- References.- 5 The Expression of Protooncogenes in Skeletal Muscle.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Categories of Oncogenes.- 2.1. Tyrosine Kinases.- 2.2. GTP-Binding Proteins.- 2.3. Nuclear Proteins.- 2.4. Peptide Hormones.- 3. Oncogene Expression in Skeletal Muscle.- References.- 6 Regulation of Myofibrillar Protein Gene Expression.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Multigene Families.- 3. Major Myofibrillar Proteins of the Sarcomere.- 3.1. Actin.- 3.2. Tropomyosin (TM).- 3.3. Troponin (TN).- 3.4. Myosin Light Chains (MLC).- 3.5. Myosin Heavy Chains (MHC).- 4. Isolation and Characterization of MHC Sequences.- 5. Effects of Various Stimuli on MHC Gene Expression.- 5.1. Thyroid Hormone.- 5.2. Exercise/Electrical Stimulation.- 6. Alternative Splicing and MHC Gene Structure.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 7 Regulation of Growth by Negative Growth Regulators.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Transforming Growth Factor-?.- 3. Platelet-Derived Inhibitors.- 3.1. 37-kDa Protein.- 3.2. 27-kDa Protein.- 3.3. Proteins Greater than 200 kDa.- 4. Interferons.- 5. Liver-Derived Inhibitors.- 6. Mammary-Derived Inhibitor.- 7. Glycopeptide Inhibitors.- 8. Density-Dependent Inhibitors.- 9. Summary.- References.- 8 Skeletal Muscle Proteases and Protein Turnover.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Features of Intracellular Protein Degradation.- 3. Intracellular Degradation of Muscle Proteins.- 4. Neutral and Alkaline Proteolytic Activities.- 4.1. Neutral and Alkaline Proteolytic Activities in Muscle Cells.- 4.2. The ATP-Stimulated and ATP-Dependent Proteinases.- 4.3. The Ca2 +-Dependent Proteinases.- 5. Protease Inhibitors.- 6. Summary.- References.- 9 Regulation of Protein Turnover.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Factors That Affect Tissue Growth and Protein Turnover.- 2.1. Protein Turnover in Different Tissues and the Effect of Developmental Age.- 2.2. Nutrient Intake.- 2.3. Functional Load.- 3. Factors That Control Protein Turnover.- 3.1. Substrates and Hormones and Their Relation to Nutritional Control.- 3.2. The Role of Initiation and Ribosomal Accretion in the Control of Translation.- 3.3. Comments on the Link between Receptor Activation and Protein Synthesis.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 10 Energy Balance Regulation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evidence for Energy Balance Regulation in Farm Animals.- 2.1. Lactation.- 2.2. Growing Animals.- 2.3. Compensatory Growth.- 2.4. Egg Production.- 3. Mechanisms of Energy Balance Regulation.- 3.1. Lactation.- 3.2. Brown Adipose Tissue Metabolism.- 3.3. Compensatory Growth.- 4. CNS Control of Food Intake.- 4.1. Brain Areas Involved.- 4.2. Mechanisms of Action.- 5. CNS Control of Peripheral Metabolism.- 5.1. Brain Areas Involved.- 5.2. Direct Regulation.- 5.3. Indirect Regulation.- 6. Theories of Signals Regulating Food Intake.- 6.1. Short-Term Mechanisms.- 6.2. Long-Term Mechanisms.- 7. Role of Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides.- 8. Summary.- References.- 11 Central Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Patterns of GH Secretion.- 3. Hypothalamic Peptides Involved in GH Regulation.- 3.1. Somatostatin.- 3.2. GH-Releasing Factor (GRF).- 3.3. Other Peptides That Increase GH Secretion.- 4. Hypothalamic Regions Involved in GH Regulation.- 5. Interaction of Somatostatin and GRF in Episodic GH Secretion.- 6. Neuropharmacological Regulation of GH Secretion.- 6.1. Norepinephrine (NE).- 6.2. Dopamine (DA).- 6.3. Serotonin (5-HT).- 6.4. Other Neurotransmitters.- 7. Gonadal Steroid Modulation of GH Secretion.- 8. Feedback Regulation of GH Secretion.- References.- 12 Mechanisms of Action for Somatotropin in Growth.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Chemical Nature of Somatotropin.- 2.1. Variants of Somatotropin.- 2.2. Fragments of Somatotropin.- 2.3. Receptor Mediation of Somatotropin Effects.- 3. Biological Response to Somatotropin.- 3.1. Nutrient Partitioning.- 3.2. Pattern of Administration.- 3.3. Dose-Response Relationships: Growth Model.- 4. Mechanisms of Action.- 4.1. General Considerations.- 4.2. Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 4.3. Bone and Mineral Metabolism.- 4.4. Adipose Tissue Lipid Metabolism.- 4.5. Muscle and Protein Metabolism.- 5. Summary and Perspectives.- References.- 13 Regulation of Somatomedin Production, Release, and Mechanism of Action.- 1. Origin of the Somatomedin Hypothesis.- 2. Methods of Analyses.- 3. Gene Expression and the Insulin Peptide Family.- 4. Site of Synthesis.- 5. Somatomedin Research in Domestic Animals.- References.- 14 Sexual Differentiation and the Growth Process.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Rats.- 3. Cattle and Sheep.- 4. Swine.- 5. Chickens.- 6. Sexual Differences in Growth-Related Endocrine Processes.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 15 Potential Mechanisms for Repartitioning of Growth by ß-Adrenergic Agonists.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biology of Adrenergic Hormones and Neurotransmitters.- 2.1. Endogenous Adrenergic Agents.- 2.2. Synthesis and Removal.- 2.3. Adrenergic Receptors.- 2.4. Coupling of Adrenergic Receptors to Intracellular Function.- 2.5. Physiological Effects of Adrenergic Agonists.- 3. Administration of ß-Adrenergic Agonists to Animals.- 3.1. Effects.- 3.2. Adipose Tissue.- 3.3. Muscle.- 3.4. Other Mechanisms.- References.- 16 Gene Transfer for Enhanced Growth of Livestock.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Identification of Genes for Transfer.- 3. Methods of Producing Transgenic Animals.- 3.1. Microinjection into Fertilized Ova.- 3.2. Retroviral Insertion of Genes.- 3.3. Insertion via Pluripotent Cells.- 3.4. Insertion by Transposons.- 4. Production of Transkaryotic Animals.- 5. Transfer of Growth-Related Genes into Livestock.- 5.1. Integration of Growth-Related Genes.- 5.2. Expression of Integrated Genes.- 5.3. Growth Performance of Transgenic Livestock.- 5.4. Germline Transmission of Fusion Genes.- 5.5. Expression in Animals with Transkaryotic Implants.- 6. Conclusions.- References.- 17 Status of Current Strategies for Growth Regulation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Steroid Hormone and Xenobiotic Regulation of Animal Growth.- 3. Manipulation of Animal Growth with Exogenous Somatotropin.- 4. Use of Growth Hormone-Releasing Factor (GRF) to Alter Animal Growth.- 5. Use of ?-Adrenergic Agonists to Manipulate Animal Growth.- 5.1. Effects of Adrenergic Agonists in Sheep.- 5.2. Effects of Adrenergic Agonists in Cattle.- 5.3. Effects of Adrenergic Agonists in Swine.- 6. Use of Immunization to Manipulate Animal Growth.- 7. Summary and Perspectives.- References.