Planet Earth

Preface Some Suggestions for Academic Success Chapter 1 Earth and Its Place in Space Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics Chapter 5 Minerals Chapter 3 Minerals Chapter 4 Volcanism Chapter 5 Igneous Rocks Chapter 6 Weathering Chapter 7 Soils Chapter 8 Mass Wasting Chapter 9 Streams Chapter 10 Glaciers Chapter 11 Deserts and the Wind Chapter 12 Oceans and Shorelines Chapter 13 Sedimentary Rocks Chapter 14 Groundwater Chapter 15 Rode Deformation and the Geologic Structures Chapter 16 Metamorphic Rocks Chapter 17 Mountain Building Chapter 18 Earthquakes and Seismology Chapter 19 Earth's Interior Chapter 20 Economic Geology and Energy Chapter 21 The Age of Earth Appendix A Answers to Review Questions Glossary _________________________________________________ CONTENTS FOR MAIN TEXT INTRODUCTION: An Overview of Earth 1 Kinds of Rocks 1 Igneous Rocks 1 Sedimentary Rocks 5 Metamorphic Rocks 7 The Internal Structure of Earth 8 The Surface of Earth 12 The Ocean Basins 12 The Continents 17 The Hydrosphere and the Atmosphere 21 The Rock Cycle 21 Conclusion 22 Concepts and Terms to Remember 22 Review Questions 23 CHAPTER 1: Earth and Its Place in Space 25 Introduction 27 The View for Earth 27 The Contribution of the Ancient Greeks 27 The Evolution of Modern Astronomy 29 The Galaxies 30 Distances in Space 30 The Origin and Evolution of the Universe 31 The Formation of Stars 31 The Death of Stars 31 The Formation of Our Solar System 32 The Planets 33 The Terrestrial Planets 33 The Jovian Planets 37 Pluto, the Maverick Planet 40 Asteroids 41 Meteors, Meteoroids, and Meteorites 41 Comets 42 Concepts and Terms to Remember 44 Review Questions 44 Thought Problems 45 For Your Notebook 45 CHAPTER 2: Plate Tectonics 47 Introduction 49 Historical Development 49 F.B. Taylor 50 H.B. Baker 50 Alfred Wegener 50 Modern Developments 52 Rock Magnetism 52 Topography of the Ocean Bottom 54 Seismic Investigation of Earth's Interior 60 The Principle of Plate Tectonics 65 Concepts and Terms to Remember 67 Review Questions 67 Thought Problems 68 For Your Notebook 69 CHAPTER 3: Minerals 71 Introduction 73 Minerals Defined 73 Chemical Composition of Minerals 73 Compounds 75 Chemical Bonding 78 Crystal Structure 80 Mineral Identification 80 Physical Properties 80 Instrumental Identification Techniques 85 Mineral Classification 85 Silicate Crystal Structures 86 Nonsilicate Minerals 91 Concepts and Terms to Remember 91 Review Questions 92 Thought Problems 93 For Your Notebook 93 CHAPTER 4: Volcanism 95 Introduction 97 Distribution of Volcanoes 99 Relationship to Plate Boundaries 99 Intraplate Volcanism 100 Ejected Materials 100 Gases 102 Liquids 103 Solids (Tephra) 106 Ash Flows 108 Mudflows or Lahars 108 Kinds of Volcanoes 109 Cinder Cones 109 Spatter Cones 109 Shield Volcanoes 110 Stratovolcanoes or Composite Volcanoes 111 Eruptive Intensity 112 Classification of Eruptive Intensity 114 Fissure Eruptions 116 Oceanic Ridges 116 Flood Basalts 117 Felsic Eruptions 118 Craters and Calderas 118 Other Volcanic Features 121 Hot Springs 121 Geysers 121 Fumaroles 122 Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions 123 Examples of Other Noteworthy Volcanoes 125 Mount Vesuvius 125 Santorini 126 Krakatoa 128 Mount St. Helens 128 The Hawaiian Islands 131 Sakurajima, Japan 136 Concepts and Terms to Remember 137 Review Questions 137 Thought Problems 138 For Your Notebook 138 CHAPTER 5: Igneous Rocks 139 Introduction 141 Melting and Crystallization of Solids 141 The Melting of Single Minerals of Constant Composition 142 The Melting of Mixtures of Minerals and Minerals of Variable Composition 142 Order of Mineral Crystallization 143 Rock Texture 146 The Rate of Cooling 146 Classification of Igneous Rocks 148 The Origin of Magmas and Plate Tectonics 150 Igneous Rock Bodies 154 Intrusive Rock Bodies 154 Concepts and Terms to Remember 158 Review Questions 158 Thought Problems 159 For Your Notebook 159 CHAPTER 6: Weathering 161 Introduction 163 Weathering Defined 164 Mechanical Weathering 164 Frost Action 164 Exfoliation 165 Spheroidal Weathering 167 Effect of Temperature 168 Plant Wedging 169 Chemical Weathering 170 Oxidation 170 Dissolution 171 Carbonation/Hydrolysis 173 Rates of Chemical Weathering 174 Temperature 174 Availability of Water 174 Particle Size 174 Composition 175 Metastable Materials 176 Regolith 176 Environmental Concerns 177 Trace Elements 177 Water Quality 179 The Effect of Mining on Water Quality 180 Concepts and Terms to Remember 180 Review Questions 180 Thought Problems 181 For Your Notebook 182 CHAPTER 7: Soils 183 Introduction 185 Soil Defined 185 Factors Controlling Soil Formation 185 Biological Factors 186 Physical Factors 187 Climate 188 Time 188 The Role of the Clay Minerals 188 Cation Adsorption 189 Cation Exchange Capacity 189 Soil Horizons 192 The 0 Horizon 192 The A Horizon 192 The E Horizon 192 The B Horizon 193 The C Horizon 194 Horizon Development 194 The Influence of Rainfall 194 The Effect of Water Volume and Chemistry 194 Tropical Regions 196 Types of Soil 196 Environmental Concerns 197 Concepts and Terms to Remember 201 Review Questions 201 Thought Problems 202 For Your Notebook 202 CHAPTER 8: Mass Wasting 203 Introduction 205 Slope Stability 208 Factors Affecting Cohesion and Friction 208 Water Saturation 208 Ice Formation 209 Oversteepening of Slopes 210 Classification of Mass Wasting Processes 211 Creep 211 Earthflow 211 Landslides 213 Environmental Concerns 220 Causes of Slope Instability 220 The Effects of Earth Moving 222 Identification of Potentially Hazardous Sites 223 Methods of Slope Stabilization 224 Subsidence 226 Concepts and Terms to Remember 230 Review Questions 230 Thought Problems 231 For Your Notebook 231 CHAPTER 9: Streams 233 Introduction 235 The Hydrologic Cycle 235 Drainage Systems 236 Stream Order 238 Stream Patterns 238 The Energy of a Stream 242 Gradient 244 Channel Texture 244 Water Volume 244 The Dynamics of Water Flow 245 The Processes of Erosion and Transportation 245 The Generation of Force 246 The Effect of Particle Size and Shape 246 Capacity and Load 247 The Development of Topographic Relief 249 Baselevel 249 Fluvial Landforms 249 Meandering 257 The Development of Grade 257 Climate Influences 260 Tectonic Influences 260 Human Influences 260 Alluvial Deposits 261 Channel Deposits 261 Floodplain Deposits 261 Deltas 264 The Mississippi Delta 265 Alluvial Fans 272 Environmental Concerns 274 Floods 274 Water Pollution 275 Concepts and Terms to Remember 276 Review Questions 277 Thought Problems 278 For Your Notebook 278 CHAPTER 10: Glaciers 281 Introduction 283 The Distribution of Glaciers 283 The Origin of Glacial Ice 283 The Movement of Glacial Ice 286 Ice Thickness 286 Ice Temperature ' 287 Slope of the Bedrock and Ice Surface 287 The Glacial Budget 288 Processes of Glacial Erosion 289 Erosion by Alpine Glaciers 290 Erosion by Continental Glaciers 294 Glacial Deposition 297 Kinds of Glacial Deposits 297 Periglacial Regions 303 Mass Wasting 303 Weathering 303 Streams 305 The Wind 305 Understanding Continental Glaciation 305 The Great Ice Age 307 The Great Lakes 307 The Causes of Continental Glaciation 313 Celestial Causes 313 Volcanic Activity 313 Plate Tectonics 314 Environmental Concerns 315 Rising Sea Levels 315 Goiter 315 Concepts and Terms to Remember 316 Review Questions 317 Thought Problems 317 For Your Notebook 318 CHAPTER 11: Deserts and the Wind 319 Introduction 321 Relative Humidity 324 Kinds of Deserts 324 Rainshadow Deserts 324 Subtropical Deserts 325 Fog Deserts 326 Isolation Deserts 327 Erosion in the Desert 329 The Effectiveness of Water 329 The Arid Cycle of Erosion 331 Erosion by the Wind 337 Deflation 338 Abrasion 338 Deposition from the Wind 339 Loess 339 Dunes 340 Environmental Concerns 344 Overgrazing 344 Overcultivation 345 Fuel 345 Salinization 345 Concepts and Terms to Remember 346 Review Questions 347 Thought Problems 347 For Your Notebook 348 CHAPTER 12: Ocean and Shorelines 349 Introduction 351 Exploring the Ocean Bottom 351 Sonar 351 Submersibles 352 Deep-Sea Drilling 353 The Origin of the Ocean Basins 353 Cosmic Origins 353 Plate Tectonics 353 Supercontinent Cycles 356 Landforms on the Ocean Bottom 357 Oceanic Ridges 357 Abyssal Hills 358 Abyssal Plains 359 Deep-Sea Trenches 359 Shield Volcanoes 359 Continental Margins 359 Continental Trailing Edges 359 Continental Leading Edges 363 Movement of Ocean Water 364 Waves 364 Tides 365 Longshore Currents 367 Ocean Currents 367 Coastal Processes 374 Emergent or High-Energy Coastlines 375 Submergent or Low-Energy Coastlines 378 Reefs 382 Kinds of Reefs 382 Modification of Shoreline Processes 385 Environmental Concerns 385 Concepts and Terms to Remember 387 Review Questions 388 Thought Problems 389 For Your Notebook 389 CHAPTER 13: Sedimentary Rocks 391 Introduction 393 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 394 Size 394 Composition 394 Sorting 394 Shape 395 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 397 Breccia 397 Conglomerate 397 Sandstones 397 Siltstone 398 Shales and Mudstones 398 Nondetrital Sedimentary Rocks 398 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 398 Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks 400 Evaporitic Sedimentary Rocks 402 Organic Sedimentary Rocks 402 Depositional Environments 403 Continental Deposits 403 Transitional Environments 405 Marine Environments 407 Lithification 409 Compaction 409 Cementation 409 Sedimentary Features 410 Beds 410 Ripple Marks 410 Cross-Bedding 410 Graded Bedding 411 Mud Cracks 413 Animal Trails 413 Interpretation of Ancient Depositional Environments 414 Walther's Law 417 Environmental Concerns (Sediments) 419 Sediment Pollution 419 Engineering Problems 419 Concepts and Terms to Remember 420 Review Questions 421 Thought Problems 421 For Your Notebook 422 CHAPTER 14: Groundwater 423 Introduction 425 Porosity and Permeability 426 Porosity 426 Permeability 428 Aquifiers, Aquitards, and Aquicludes 428 The Water Table 430 Regional Water Tables 431 Perched or Hanging Water Tables 432 Water Wells 433 Confined Aquifers 433 Municipl Water Supplies 436 Karst Topography 437 Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks 438 Sinkholes 438 Surface Drainage 439 Subsurface Drainage 439 Caves and Caverns 440 Hot Springs, Fumaroles, and Geysers 443 Environmental Concerns 443 Groundwater Pollution 445 Dewatering 445 Saltwater Encroachment 446 Concepts and Terms to Remember 448 Review Questions 448 Thought Problems For Your Notebook CHAPTER 15: Rock Deformation and the Geologic Structures 451 Introduction 453 Stress, Deformation, and the Strength of Materials 454 Kinds of Stress 454 Kinds of Deformation 455 The Strength of Rocks 458 Rock Deformation 458 Elastic Deformation 460 Plastic Deformation 460 Brittle Deformation 460 The Concept of Strike and Dip 461 Geologic Structures 461 Folds 461 Faults 464 Faulting After Initial Folding 468 Joints 469 Determining the Direction of Rock Movement 473 Rock Transport 473 Actual Direction of Fault Movements 474 Relative Direction of Fault Movements 475 Concepts and Terms to Remember 477 Review Questions 478 Thought Problems 478 For Your Notebook 479 CHAPTER 16: Metamorphic Rocks 481 Introduction 483 Metamorphism 484 Metamorphic Textures and Classifications 484 Foliated Texture 485 Nonfoliated Texture 486 Kinds of Metamorphism 488 Contact Metamorphism 488 Dynamo-Thermal Metamorphism 488 Hydrothermal Metamorphism 489 Metamorphic Grade 491 Metamorphic Facies 491 Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics 492 Environmental Concerns 494 Concepts and Terms to Remember 495 Review Questions 496 Thought Problems 497 For Your Notebook 497 CHAPTER 17: Mountain Building 499 Introduction 501 Definition of a Mountain 501 Kinds of Mountains 502 Volcanic Mountains 502 Domal and Block-Fault Mountains 504 Foldbelt Mountains 507 Orogenic Styles 511 Ocean-Continent Orogenesis 511 Ocean-Island Arc-Continent Orogenesis 514 Continent-Continent Orogensis 515 Concepts and Terms to Remember 519 Review Questions 519 Thought Problems 520 For Your Notebook 520 CHAPTER 18: Earthquakes and Seismology 521 Introduction 523 Distribution of Earthquakes 523 The Frequency and Location of Earthquakes 524 Focus 525 Epicenter 525 Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 526 Intensity 526 Magnitude 527 Damage from Earthquakes 530 Tsunami 532 Earthquake (Seismic) Waves 533 Body Waves 534 Surface Waves 534 The Seismograph 335 Locating Earthquakes from Seismic Data 538 Worldwide Seismic Network 542 Earthquake Prediction 543 Concepts and Terms to Remember 544 Review Questions 545 Thought Problems 546 For Your Notebook 546 CHAPTER 19: Earth's Interior 547 Introduction 549 Seismic Wave Velocities 550 The Crust-Mantle Boundary 551 The Mantle-Core Boundary 552 Isostasy 555 Isostatic Balance 558 Crystal Loading and Unloading 560 Concepts and Terms to Remember 562 Review Questions 562 Thought Problems 563 For Your Notebook 563 CHAPTER 20: Economic Geology and Energy 565 Introduction 567 Classification of Natural Resources 568 Ore, Protore, and Gangue 568 Reserves and Resources 568 Metalliferous Deposits 569 Concentrations of Metals 569 Enrichment of Ore Bodies by Weathering 571 Banded Iron Formations 572 Alluvial and Eolian Concentrations 574 Nonmetallic Nonfuels 577 Fuels 577 Coals 578 Petroleum 584 Oil Shales 586 The Future of Fossil Fuels 586 Nuclear Power 588 Fission Reactors 588 Fusion 591 Alternative Sources of Energy 591 Geothermal Power 591 Wind 592 The Tides 594 Hydropower 594 Biomass 595 Conservation 597 Solar Energy 598 Environmental Concerns 601 Coal Mining 601 Environmental Problems 602 Treating the Acid Mine Drainage Problem 602 Concepts and Terms to Remember 604 Review Questions 605 Thought Problems 606 For Your Notebook 606 CHAPTER 21: The Age of Earth 607 Introduction 609 Early Estimates of Earth's Age 609 Dating Methods 611 Relative Dating 611 Absolute Dating 619 Dating by Sediment Accumulation, Ocean Salinity, and Earth's Heat 619 Radiometric Dating 621 Rock Time Scales 624 The Modern Time Scale 624 Periods of the Paleozoic Era 628 Periods of the Mesozoic Era 629 Periods and Epochs of the Cenozoic Era 631 Concepts and Terms to Remember Review Questions Thought Problems For Your Notebook APPENDIX A: Glossary APPENDIX B: Tables ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS INDEX