Encyclopedia of Green Chemistry

Béla Török is a professor of Chemistry at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. His main research focus is on the design of new green chemistry processes for the synthesis of fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals. The major tools applied in his research are heterogeneous catalysis (both metal and solid acid), the application of aqueous medium in organic synthesis and non-traditional activation methods such as microwave and ultrasonic irradiation and high hydrostatic pressure. He has published over 180 papers, written/edited six books. He has been a regional (North America) editor for Letters in Org. Chem. for several years and editorial board member in five other journals. Most notably he is the founding and current co-editor-in-chief for Elsevier’s Advances in Green and Sustainable Chemistry series that successfully launched in 2019.

Section 1. Historical Background and Development of Green Chemistry
1.1. Early developments in Green Chemistry
1.2. The Description and Major Principles of Green Chemistry and Engineering
1.3. Scope of Green Chemistry
1.4. The “Benign by Design” Concept

Section 2. Chemistry of the Environment
2.1. Atmospheric Chemistry
2.1.1. The Chemistry of the Atmosphere
2.1.2. The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
2.1.2.1. Mechanism of the Greenhouse Effect
2.1.2.2. Greenhouse Gases
2.1.2.3. Effect of Aerosols on the Climate
2.1.2.4. Potential Effects of Global Warming
2.1.2.5. Minimizing CO2 and Other Greenhouse Gases Emission.
2.1.3. The Chemistry and Role of the Ozone Layer
2.1.3.1. Chemical Processes in the Stratosphere
2.1.3.2. The Depletion of the Ozone Layer
2.1.3.3. Ozone Destructing Chemicals and Their Role in Ozone Destruction
2.1.4. Air Pollution
2.1.4.1. Smog formation
2.1.4.2. Formation of Acid Rain and Its Consequences
2.2. The Chemistry of Soil
2.2.1. Basic Chemical Processes of Soil
2.2.2. Acidity/Basicity and Salinity of Soil
2.2.3. Contamination and Remediation of Soil around Industrial Sites.
2.2.4. Effect of Agrochemicals on Soil
2.3. The Chemistry of Water
2.3.1. Fundamental Chemical Processes of Natural Waters
2.3.2. The Pollution and Purification of Water
2.3.3. Groundwater: Source, Contamination, Remediation
2.3.4. Municipal Sewage and Wastewater Contamination and Treatment
2.3.5. Treatment of Industrial and Hospital Wastewater
2.3.6. Effect of Agrochemical Contaminants (Fertilizers, Pesticides) on Natural Waters

Section 3. Green Synthesis-1: Catalysis
3.1. Catalytic Materials
3.1.1. Soluble (or Homogeneous) Catalysts
3.1.1.1. Soluble Metal Complexes
3.1.1.2. Water-resistant soluble acids
3.1.1.3. Base-catalysts
3.1.1.4. Organocatalysts
3.1.2. Solid (or Heterogeneous) Catalysts
3.1.2.1. Metal Catalysts
3.1.2.1.1. Unsupported Metals
3.1.2.1.2. Supported Metals
3.1.2.1.3. Supported Metal Complexes
3.1.3. Solid Acid Catalysts
3.1.3.1. Metal Oxide Catalysts
3.1.3.2. Zeolites
3.1.3.3. Clays
3.1.3.4. Acidic Ion-Exchange Resins
3.1.3.5. Heteropoly Acids and Their Salts
3.1.3.6. Sulfated Metal Oxides
3.1.4. Solid Base Catalysts
3.1.4.1. Metal Oxides and Carbonates
3.1.4.2. Basic Ion-Exchange Resins
3.1.4.3. Zeolites
3.1.4.4. Layered Double Hydroxides
3.1.5. Nanoparticle catalysts
3.1.6. Metal-organic Frameworks
3.1.7. Other Organic-inorganic hybrid catalysts
3.1.8. Phase Transfer Catalysts
3.2. Homogeneous Catalysis
3.2.1. Basic Concepts of Homogeneous Catalysis
3.2.2. Ligands
3.2.3. Metals
3.2.4. Investigation of Homogeneous Catalytic Reactions: Spectroscopy, Kinetics, Computational Methods
3.2.5. Synthetic Applications of Homogeneous Catalysis
3.2.6. Industrial Processes
3.2.6.1. Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
3.2.6.2. Synthesis of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs)
3.2.6.3. Polymerization by Metal Complexes
3.2.7. Asymmetric Catalysis by Chiral Metal Complexes
3.2.8. Recovery and Reuse of Metal Complex Catalysts
3.2.9. Homogeneous Catalysis in Green Solvents
3.3. Heterogeneous Catalysis
3.3.1. Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis
3.3.2. Surface Phenomena
3.3.3. Kinetics of Heterogeneous Catalysis
3.3.4. Characterization of Solid Catalysts
3.3.5. Synthetic Applications of Heterogeneous Catalysis
3.3.6. Industrial Catalysis
3.3.6.1. Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
3.3.6.2. Petrochemical Applications of Solid Catalysts
3.3.6.3. Automotive Industry Applications
3.3.6.4. Solid Catalysts in the Food Industry
3.3.7. Heterogeneous Catalysis in Environmental Applications

Section 4. Green Synthesis-2: Special Topics in Green Synthesis
4.1. Phase Transfer Catalysis
4.1.1. Basic Concepts
4.1.2. Liquid/Liquid and Solid/Liquid Phase Transfer Catalysis
4.1.3. Inverse Phase Transfer Catalysis
4.1.4. Reaction Design and Choice of Solvent
4.1.5. Synthetic Applications
4.1.6. Polymerization by Phase Transfer Catalysis
4.1.7. Phase Transfer Catalysis in Asymmetric Synthesis
4.1.8. Industrial Applications
4.2. Biocatalysis
4.2.1. Biocatalysts: Whole Cells, Isolated Enzymes and Immobilized Enzymes
4.2.2. Reaction Media for Biocatalysts
4.2.3. Protein Engineering for Biocatalysis
4.2.4. Substrate Engineering
4.2.5. Cell-free Synthetic Biology
4.2.6. Synthetic Applications of Biocatalysis
4.2.7. Combinatorial Biosynthesis
4.2.8. Industrial Applications
4.2.9. Biocatalysis for a Biobased Industry
4.3. Solvents
4.3.1. The Role of Solvents in Green Processes from Sustainability to Economics
4.3.2. Evaluating the Greenness of Solvents
4.3.3. Solvent Recovery and Recycling
4.3.4. Renewable Solvents from Bio-based Sources
4.3.5. Ionic Liquids as Recyclable Solvents
4.3.6. Deep Eutectic Solvents
4.3.7. Supercritical Solvents in Green Synthesis, Separations and Extractions
4.3.8. Industrial Case Studies
4.4. Polymers and Plastics
4.4.1. Fundamentals of Polymers from Structure to Everyday Applications
4.4.2. Green Synthesis of Polymers
4.4.3. Environmental Issues Caused by Traditional Synthetic Polymers
4.4.4. Sustainability and Environmental Degradability of Synthetic Polymers
4.4.5. Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers
4.4.6. Natural Renewable Polymers
4.4.7. Polymer Composite Materials
4.4.8. Recycling and Reuse of Plastic Waste

Section 5. Nontraditional Activation Methods in Green and Sustainable Applications
5.1. Microwave Activation
5.1.1. Fundamentals of Microwave Activation
5.1.2. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
5.1.3. Application of Microwave Activation in Materials Science
5.1.4. Microwaves in Biotechnology: Biocatalysis, Proteomics and More
5.1.5. Microwave Irradiation in Biomass Valorization
5.1.6. Environmental Applications of Microwave Heating
5.2. Sonochemistry
5.2.1. Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Activation
5.2.2. Aqueous Sonochemistry
5.2.3. Ultrasound-assisted Syntheses in Organic Solvents.
5.2.4. Sonocatalysis
5.2.5. Sonochemistry of Organometallic Systems
5.2.6. Environmental Applications of Ultrasounds
5.3. Photochemistry
5.3.1. Fundamentals of Photochemistry
5.3.2. Photochemical Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
5.3.3. Light-activated Molecular Switches, Machines and Motors
5.3.4. Photocatalysis
5.3.5. Environmental Applications of Light-activated Processes
5.4. Electrochemistry
5.4.1. Fundamentals of Electrochemical Activation
5.4.2. Synthetic Organic Electrochemistry
5.4.3. Electrolytic Production of Other Consumer Goods
5.4.4. Electrocatalysis
5.4.5. Environmental Applications of Electrochemical Technology
5.5. Mechanochemistry
5.5.1. Fundamentals of Mechanochemistry
5.5.2. Organic Synthesis by Mechanochemistry
5.5.3. Mechanochemistry in Material Science Applications
5.5.4. Catalysis in Mechanochemistry
5.6. High Hydrostatic Pressure
5.6.1. Chemistry under High Hydrostatic Pressure
5.6.2. High Hydrostatic Pressure in Biochemistry and Synthetic Biology
5.6.3. Chemical Synthesis with High Hydrostatic Pressure
5.6.4. Green Food Processing with High Hydrostatic Pressure
5.7. Combined Applications of Nontraditional Activation Methods

Section 6. Green Chemistry Metrics
6.1. Mass-related Metrics
6.1.1. Atom Economy
6.1.2. E-factor
6.1.3. Improving the E-factor: the Environmental, Hazard and Risk Quotients
6.1.4. Industrial Metrics: Process Mass Intensity, Carbon Efficiency and Others
6.1.5. Solvent Intensity
6.2. Energy-related factors, energy efficiency
6.2.1. Total Process Energy and Energy Consumption
6.2.2. Energy for Solvent Recovery
6.3. Environment-related Measures: Green House Gas Emission and Ozone Creation
6.3.1. Total Mass of Green House Gas from Energy (as kg of CO2 equiv.)
6.3.2. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
6.4. Solvent-related Metrics
6.5. Life Cycle Assessment

Section 7. Renewable Energy and Energy Storage
7.1. Renewable Energy Sources
7.1.1. Solar Energy Conversion
7.1.2. Hydrothermal Energy
7.1.3. Electric Energy from Wind Power
7.1.4. Hydropower
7.2. Energy Storage: Batteries and Fuel Cells.
7.2.1. Rechargeable Batteries
7.2.2. Hydrogen Fuel Cells
7.2.3. The Hydrogen Economy
7.2.4. Methanol Fuel Cells
7.2.5. The Methanol Economy
7.3. Renewable Fuels/Biofuels
7.3.1. Biofuel as a Renewable Energy Source
7.3.2. Biomass-based Biodiesel
7.3.3. Biodiesel from Renewable Natural Fats
7.3.4. Cellulosic Biodiesel
7.3.5. Biomass-based Ethanol Production
7.3.6. Other Biomass-based Alcohols as Biofuels and Solvents.
7.3.7. Biogas
7.3.8. Low-Carbon Aviation Fuel Through the Alcohol to Jet Pathway
7.3.9. Generation of Hydrogen from Biomass
7.4. Carbon Dioxide Recycling and Mitigation of Global Warming
7.4.1. Carbon Dioxide Recycling by Chemical Processes
7.4.2. Biological/Biochemical Ways of Carbon Dioxide Recycling
7.4.3. Algal Capture of Carbon Dioxide and Biomass Generation

Section 8. Biovalorization
8.1. Biomass
8.1.1. Valorization of Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.1.2. Valorization of Biomass from the Sugar Industry
8.2. Waste
8.2.1. Agricultural Waste Valorization to Produce Biofuels
8.2.2. Biovalorization of Industrial Waste
8.2.2.1. Valorization of Edible Oil Industry Waste
8.2.2.2. Production of Chemicals from Food Waste
8.2.2.3. Valorization of Paper Products
8.3. Valorization by Nontraditional Activation Methods (Microwaves etc.)
8.4. Converting Wastes to Biohydrogen by Microbial Electrolysis

Section 9. Chemical Toxicology
9.1. Exposure Classes of Toxicants
9.1.1. Air Pollutants
9.1.2. Water and Soil Pollutants
9.1.3. Occupational Toxicants
9.2. Use Classes of Toxicants
9.2.1. Metals
9.2.2. Pesticides
9.2.3. Food Additives
9.2.4. Plasticizers
9.2.5. Solvents
9.2.6. Cosmetics and Household Chemicals
9.2.7. Therapeutic Drugs
9.2.8. Drugs of Abuse
9.3. ADME Properties of Toxicants
9.3.1. Adsoprtion and Distribution of Toxicants
9.3.1. Toxic Metabolites and Elimination of Toxicants
9.4. Environmental Toxicology
9.4.1. Environmental Persistence and Bioaccumulation of Toxicants
9.4.2. Transport and Fate of Toxicants in the Environment
9.4.3. Environmental Risk Assessment
9.5. Prevention of Toxicity
9.5.1. Health Risk Assessment
9.5.2. In silico Toxicology
9.5.3. Legislations and Regulations

Section 10. Environmental Remediation
10.1. Hazardous Wastes – Types and Sources
10.2. Thermal Treatment of Waste
10.3. Soil Vapor Extraction: Fundamentals, Theory and Applications
10.4. Electrokinetic Remediation
10.6. Stabilization/Solidification
10.7. Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) for Environmental Site Remediation
10.8. Thermal Desorption and Incineration
10.9. Remediation of Soil Using Composting
10.10. Phytoremediation
10.11. Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation
10.12. Landfarming
10.13. Ultrasound-assisted Remediation Methods
10.14. Environmental Remediation by Microwave Irradiation
10.15. Electrochemical Methods for Environmental Remediation
10.16. Remediation of Nanoparticle Contamination
10.17. Environmental Remediation of Radioactive Pollution.

Section 11. Environmental Policy and its Effect on New Developments
11.1. History of Environmental Pollution and National, International Regulations
11.1. Environmental Regulatory Agencies
11.3. Chemical Manufacturing and Economic Theory
11.4. Plant Scale Economics
11.5. Economic Impact of Green Chemistry
11.6. Business Strategies Regarding Application of Green Chemistry
11.7. Incorporation of Green Chemistry in Process Design for Sustainability
11.8. Case Studies Demonstrating the Economic Benefits of Green Chemistry and Design
11.9. Economic, Legal and Safety Issues of Environmental Site Remediation