The Raven

Derek Ratcliffe grew up in Carlisle and began watching Ravens in the Lakeland fells while still a schoolboy. He later explored the Southern Uplands, Snowdonia and the Highlands, and developed a particular enthusiasm for the wildlife of the mountains and moorlands. In 1956, he joined the staff of the Nature Conservancy in Scotland, and worked for several years on the survey of vegetation in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. After this, Derek became involved in monitoring of the British Peregrine population and in the Monks Wood studies of the effects of organochlorine insecticides on birds of prey. In the late 1960s, he was responsible for the compilation of A Nature Conservation Review, an inventory of the most important terrestrial and freshwater sites in Britain for biological conservation. When the Nature Conservancy was set up anew in 1974, he became Chief Scientist and remained in his post until retirement in 1989. Although Ravens have always had to be largely a spare-time interest, he has managed to be in their nesting haunts in the spring of every year from 1945 onwards, and continues to enlarge his knowledge of their ways in the company of fellow Raven enthusiasts. He enjoys the freedom of retirement to pursue field work and to write about wildlife and its conservation. Chris Rose is an internationally acclaimed wildlife artist who specialises in wildlife within the landscape.

Preface xv Acknowledgements xix Introduction: The Raven: spirit of the wilds 1 1. THE RAVEN IN HUMAN HISTORY 7 Prehistory 8 The Raven in myth and legend 9 From scavenger friend to predator-foe 16 2. THE RAVEN'S COUNTRY 27 Cliff coasts of the agricultural districts 30 Lowland farmland in the west 32 Foothills and marginal land 33 Sheepwalks of the higher hills 34 Grouse-moors of the eastern uplands 35 Deer forests of western and northern Scotland 36 Cliff coasts of the northern and western moorlands 37 3. DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBERS IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND 4O South-east England 40 The Channel Isles 42 South-west England 42 East Anglia 46 Wales 47 Midlands 53 Northern England 55 Southern Scotland 60 Scottish Highlands 64 Scottish Islands 68 Ireland 71 Grand totals 74 4. FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS 75 Studies of food 78 The Raven as a predator 82 Other foods 89 Feeding habits 91 5. SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR 97 Territorialism 97 Flocking and communal roosts 101 Social behaviour in display 107 6. RAVEN MOVEMENTS 118 General movements 118 Daily movements 125 7. ASSOCIATIONS WITH OTHER ANIMALS 127 Birds 127 Mammals 138 8. BREEDING: NEST AND NEST SITE 139 Nest construction 140 Nest sites 144 9. BREEDING: THE EGG STAGE 16O Prelaying behaviour 160 The egg 161 Clutch size 165 Laying 168 Incubation 171 1O. BREEDING: THE YOUNG 174 Nestling growth 175 Brood size 182 Breeding performance 188 Causes of complete breeding failure 189 Egg-collecting and its effects on breeding performance 189 Regional variations in productivity 191 11. TERRITORIAILISM AND POPULATION REGULATION 196 Surplus non-breeding populations 199 Rapid remating 200 The ceiling on numbers 202 Territorialism and variations in breeding density 204 Mechanism of territorial spacing 208 Limitations of unsuitable nesting habitat 210 Mortality, population turnover and capacity for spread 211 12. RAVENS IN THE MODERN SCENE 217 Gamekeepering 218 Afforestation 225 Changes in farming practice 232 Disturbance 236 Pesticides 238 Conclusions 240 13. RAVENS ELSEWHERE IN THE WORL~D 241 Subspecies of Corr~us corax 243 Other species of Raven 245 14. INTELLIGENCE IN RAVENS 249 Appendices 1. Distribution of Raven flocks and roosts in Britain and Ireland 256 2. Calls of the Raven 265 3. Appearance of the Raven 268 4. Scientific names of animal and plant species in the text 271 5. Names of the Raven 274 Bibliography 275 l40 Tables 1-27 284 Index 317 60