Industrial Strategies and Solutions for 3D Printing

Hamid Reza Vanaei is an Associate Professor at Ecole Supérieure d’Ingénieurs Léonard de Vinci (ESILV), Léonard de Vinci University in Paris, France. Sofiane Khelladi is a Full Professor at Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology in Paris, France. Abbas Tcharkhtchi is a Full Professor at Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology in Paris, France.

List of Contributors xv

Preface xxi

1 3D Printing as a Multidisciplinary Field 1
Hamid Reza Vanaei, Sofiane Khelladi, and Abbas Tcharkhtchi

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Unveiling the Foundations: Grasping the Essential Features of 3D Printing 2

1.2.1 Historical Review 2

1.2.2 Potential of 3D Printing from Lab to Industry 5

1.2.3 Challenges and Potential Roadmap Toward Solving them in 3D Printing 6

1.2.3.1 High Building Rate 3D Printing Process 9

1.2.3.2 Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM) System 9

1.2.3.3 Faster FFF 3D Printing System 10

1.2.3.4 Improvement of Interfacial Bonding and Strength in Z-Direction 11

1.2.4 Role of Controlling Factors in 3D Printing 12

1.3 Multiphysics Behavior in 3D Printing Process 13

1.3.1 Physicochemical and Mechanical Phenomena of 3D-printed Parts 13

1.3.2 Thermal Features of 3D-printed Parts 14

1.3.3 Rheological Evaluations in 3D Printing 15

1.3.3.1 Mastering the Flow: Essential Fundamentals of Rheology 15

1.3.3.2 Optimizing with Rheological Insights 16

1.3.4 In-process Temperature Monitoring in 3D Printing 17

1.4 3D Printing Perfection: Unveiling the Power of Optimization 18

1.4.1 Importance of Multiphysics Evaluation in 3D Printing 18

1.4.2 Optimizing the Controlling Factors and Characteristics of 3D-printed Parts 20

1.4.3 Role of Machine Learning in 3D Printing 21

1.5 Future Outlook 22

1.5.1 Emerging Horizons in Multidisciplinary 3D Printing 22

1.5.2 Building Life with Precision 22

1.5.3 Architectural Revolution: Design and Construction Reimagined 23

1.5.4 Sustainable Manufacturing: A Green Revolution 23

1.6 Summary and Outlooks: Pioneering a Multidisciplinary Renaissance 23

References 24

2 Potential of 3D Printing from Lab to Industry 25
Zohreh Mousavi Nejad, Nicholas J. Dunne, and Tanya J. Levingstone

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Architecture and Construction Industry 26

2.3 Healthcare and Medical Industry 28

2.3.1 Dental and Craniomaxillofacial 29

2.3.2 Medical Devices 30

2.3.3 Drug Delivery and Pharmaceutical 31

2.3.4 Tissue Engineering 32

2.3.5 Personalized Treatment 35

2.4 Textile and Fashion Industry 35

2.5 Food Industry 37

2.6 Aerospace Industry 39

2.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 40

References 40

3 Applicable Materials and Techniques in 3D Printing 43
Saeedeh Vanaei and Mohammad Elahinia

3.1 Introduction 43

3.2 Materials in 3D Printing 45

3.2.1 Metals 45

3.2.1.1 Aluminum Alloys 45

3.2.1.2 Stainless Steel 45

3.2.1.3 Titanium Alloys 46

3.2.1.4 Nickel-based Shape Memory Alloys 46

3.2.1.5 Cobalt Chrome Alloys 46

3.2.2 Polymers 47

3.2.2.1 Polylactide 47

3.2.2.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 47

3.2.2.3 Polyamide 47

3.2.2.4 Polycarbonate 48

3.2.3 Ceramics 48

3.2.4 Composites 48

3.2.4.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites 49

3.2.4.2 Particle Reinforced Composites 49

3.3 Techniques in 3D Printing 49

3.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling 52

3.3.2 Powder Bed Fusion 52

3.3.3 Direct Energy Deposition 52

3.3.4 Binder Jetting 53

3.3.5 Material Jetting 53

3.3.6 Sheet Lamination 54

3.3.7 Vat Photopolymerization 54

3.4 Summary and Outlook 54

References 55

4 Diverse Application of 3D Printing Process 59
Shohreh Vanaei and Nader Zirak

4.1 Introduction 59

4.2 3D Printing: Transforming Manufacturing Landscapes 60

4.3 Application of 3D Printing: Different Manufacturing Technology 61

4.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling 61

4.3.1.1 Revolutionizing Prototyping with Fused Deposition Modeling (fdm) 61

4.3.1.2 Functional End-Use Parts in Manufacturing 61

4.3.1.3 Medical Advancements Through FDM 61

4.3.1.4 Education and Conceptual Learning 62

4.3.1.5 Sustainability and Customization 62

4.3.2 Stereolithography 62

4.3.2.1 Precision Prototyping and Beyond with Stereolithography (sla) 62

4.3.2.2 Tailoring the Medical Landscape 63

4.3.2.3 Architectural and Design Elegance 63

4.3.2.4 Jewelry and Fashion Innovation 63

4.3.2.5 Educational Enrichment and Research 63

4.3.3 Binder Jetting 64

4.3.3.1 Redefining Metal Fabrication with Binder Jetting Technology 64

4.3.3.2 Ceramic Applications and Engineering Advancements 64

4.3.3.3 Transforming Customization and Product Design 64

4.3.3.4 Architectural and Artistic Exploration 65

4.3.3.5 Promoting Sustainable Practices and Material Efficiency 65

4.3.4 Power Bed Fusion 65

4.3.4.1 Empowering Aerospace Innovation with Powder Bed Fusion 65

4.3.4.2 Medical Advancements Through PBF Techniques 65

4.3.4.3 High-Performance Components in Automotive Engineering 66

4.3.4.4 Unlocking Design Possibilities with Customization 66

4.3.5 Selective Laser Sintering 66

4.3.5.1 Elevating Manufacturing Precision with Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) 66

4.3.5.2 Aerospace Innovation Through SLS 67

4.3.5.3 Medical Devices and Prosthetics 67

4.3.5.4 Automotive Engineering and Rapid Prototyping 67

4.3.5.5 Tooling and Manufacturing Efficiency 67

4.3.6 Direct Energy Deposition (DED) 67

4.3.6.1 Empowering Large-Scale Manufacturing with DED 67

4.3.6.2 Aerospace Advancements with DED 68

4.3.6.3 Oil and Gas Infrastructure Enhancement 68

4.3.6.4 Tooling and Mold Manufacturing 68

4.3.6.5 Repair and Refurbishment 68

4.4 Application of 3D Printing: Industrial Sector 69

4.4.1 Automotive Innovation Driven by 3D Printing 69

4.4.2 Aerospace Advancements Through 3D Printing 70

4.4.3 3D Printing in Turbomachinery 71

4.4.4 Food Industry 72

4.4.5 Medical Breakthroughs with 3D Printing 73

4.4.6 Electronic Industry 74

4.4.7 Construction Industry: Architecture and Building 75

4.4.8 Fashion Industry 76

4.5 Summary 78

References 78

5 Redefining Fabrication: Emerging Challenges in the Evaluation of 3D-printed Parts 81
Xiaofan Luo, Mengxue Yan, Kaddour Raissi, and Amrid Mammeri

5.1 Introduction: Scope and Definition 81

5.2 Historical Review 82

5.3 Technological Challenges in ME-3DP 85

5.3.1 The Symptoms of ME-3DP 86

5.3.1.1 Poor Process Reliability 86

5.3.1.2 Low Printing Speed 88

5.3.1.3 Part Distortion 89

5.3.1.4 Unpredictable Properties 90

5.3.2 The Root Cause 91

5.3.2.1 Process Complexity: ME-3DP vs Injection Molding 91

5.3.2.2 The Extrusion Process 92

5.3.2.3 Anisotropy and the Poor Strength in Z-direction of 3D-printed Parts 93

5.3.2.4 The Lower Building Rate of ME-3DP 96

5.4 Future Perspective: Potential Roadmaps Toward Solving the Key Challenges of ME-3DP 96

5.5 High Building Rate ME-3DP Process 98

5.6 Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM) System 98

5.7 Faster FFF 3D Printing System 99

5.8 Improvement of Interfacial Bonding and Strength in Z-direction 100

5.9 Conclusions 101

References 102

6 Importance of Multi-objective Evaluation in 3D Printing 105
Kasin Ransikarbum and Namhun Kim

6.1 Introduction 105

6.2 The Current State of Multi-Objective Evaluation of 3DP 107

6.2.1 Part Orientation Problem in 3DP 108

6.2.2 Printer Selection Problem in 3DP 109

6.2.3 Part-to-Printer Assignment Problem in 3DP 110

6.3 Decision Support System for 3DP Under Multi-Objective Evaluation 111

6.3.1 Part Orientation 111

6.3.1.1 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) 114

6.3.1.2 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) 114

6.3.1.3 Linear Normalization (LN) 115

6.3.1.4 Illustrative Case Study for Part Orientation 115

6.3.2 Printer Selection 120

6.3.2.1 Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) 120

6.3.2.2 Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (topsis) 121

6.3.2.3 Illustrative Case Study for Printer Selection 122

6.3.3 Part-to-Printer Scheduling 122

6.3.3.1 Multi-objective Optimization 123

6.3.3.2 Illustrative Case Study for Part-to-Printer Assignment 124

6.4 Discussion and Managerial Implication 125

6.5 Conclusion 126

References 127

7 Role of Controlling Factors in 3D Printing 129
Shahriar Hashemipour and Amrid Mammeri

7.1 Introduction 129

7.2 FFF Process Parameters 130

7.3 Controlling Factors as a Source of Heat Transfer 133

7.4 Impact of Controlling Factors on Mechanical Features of 3D-Printed Parts 135

7.5 Role of Controlling Factors on Interfacial Bonding of 3D-Printed Parts 136

7.6 Role of Controlling Factors on Optimization of 3D-Printed Parts 137

7.7 Summary and Outlook 141

References 142

8 Physico-chemical Features of 3D-printed Parts 145
Wuzhen Huang and Yi Xiong

8.1 Introduction 145

8.2 Fused Filament Fabrication 146

8.3 Different Types of Applicable Materials in FFF 147

8.3.1 Classification of Polymers 149

8.3.1.1 Amorphous Polymers 149

8.3.1.2 Semi-crystalline Polymers 152

8.3.2 Classification of Polymer Composites 155

8.3.2.1 Structural Polymer Matrix Composites 156

8.3.2.2 Functional Polymer Matrix Composites 157

8.4 Physicochemical Characterization of 3D-printed Parts 157

8.4.1 Physical Properties of 3D-printed Parts 158

8.4.1.1 Mechanical Properties 158

8.4.1.2 Thermal Properties 161

8.4.1.3 Electrical and Optical Properties 164

8.4.2 Chemical Properties 164

8.4.2.1 Molecular Weight 164

8.4.2.2 Chemical Permeability 165

8.4.2.3 Chemical Resistance 165

8.4.2.4 Chemical Degradability 165

8.5 Effect of Phase Change on the Quality of 3D-Printed Parts 166

8.5.1 The Factors that Affect the Crystallization of 3D-Printed Parts 166

8.5.2 The Effect of Crystallinity on Physical Properties 166

8.5.2.1 Optical Properties 166

8.5.2.2 Thermal Properties 167

8.5.2.3 Water Absorption and Wear Resistance 167

8.5.2.4 Mechanical Properties 168

References 168

9 3D Printing Optimization: Importance of Rheological Evaluation in 3D Printing 171
Abbas Tcharkhtchi, Reza Eslami Farsani, and Hamid Reza Vanaei

9.1 Introduction 171

9.2 Fundamentals of Viscosity 172

9.3 Resistance of Materials to Flow 173

9.3.1 Modulus 173

9.3.2 Viscosity 174

9.3.3 Relaxation Time 175

9.4 Materials with Different Rheological Behaviors 176

9.4.1 Elastic Materials 177

9.4.2 Viscous Materials 177

9.4.3 Plastic Materials 178

9.5 Different Rheological Behaviors at Constant Pressure and Temperature 181

9.5.1 Newtonian Liquids 181

9.5.2 Time-independent Non-Newtonian Liquids 181

9.6 Viscoelastic Behavior 182

9.7 3D Printing of Thermoplastic Polymers 184

9.7.1 Temperature Evolution as an Indicator for Viscosity Measurement 185

9.7.2 Interphase Formation Between the Filaments During 3D Printing Process 188

9.8 Rheology and Optimization in 3D Printing Process 189

9.9 Summary 190

References 191

10 Investigating the Mechanical Performance of 3D-printed Parts 193
Hamid Reza Javadinejad, Abdoulmajid Eslami, and Hamid Reza Vanaei

10.1 Introduction 193

10.2 Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Parts 194

10.2.1 Modula of 3D-Printed Parts 194

10.2.2 Tensile Properties of 3D-Printed Parts 194

10.2.3 Compressive Properties of 3D Printed Parts 196

10.2.4 Flexural Properties of 3D Printed Parts 197

10.2.5 Impact Strength Properties of 3D Printed Parts 199

10.2.6 Shear Properties of 3D Printed Parts 201

10.2.7 Hardness Properties of 3D Printed Parts 202

10.2.8 Fatigue Properties of 3D Printed Parts 203

10.2.9 Creep Properties of 3D Printed Parts 204

10.3 Conclusion 205

References 205

11 Thermal Modeling of Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (MEX) 211
José A. Covas, Sidonie F. Costa, and Fernando M. Duarte

11.1 Introduction 211

11.2 Thermal Modeling of MEX 212

11.3 A Thermal Model for Heat Transfer and Bonding 218

11.4 Printing a Tensile Test Specimen 225

11.5 Conclusions 228

References 229

12 In-Process Temperature Monitoring in 3D Printing 233
Saeedeh Vanaei and Michael Deligant

12.1 Introduction 233

12.2 Heat Transfer in 3D Printing 234

12.3 The Impact of Cyclic Temperature Profile in 3D-Printing Process 237

12.3.1 In-Process Monitoring of Temperature Variation in 3D-Printing Process 240

12.3.1.1 Global Monitoring – Temperature Recording on the External Surface of Deposited Layers 241

12.3.1.2 Local Monitoring – Temperature Recording at the Interfaces of Adjacent Layers 243

12.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Global–Local In-Process Monitoring 247

12.5 Summary and Outlook 247

References 248

13 Optimizing the Controlling Factors and Characteristics of 3D-printed Parts 253
Anouar El Magri and Sébastien Vaudreuil

13.1 Introduction 253

13.2 Controlling Factors of FFF Process 254

13.3 Overview of Optimization 256

13.3.1 What Is “Optimization of 3D-Printing Parameters”? 256

13.3.2 Response Surface Methodology (RSM) 257

13.3.3 Equation of Regression and ANOVA 258

13.3.4 Main Effect Diagram and Pareto Chart 259

13.3.5 Contour Plots, 3D Surface Plots, and Optimization Diagram 261

13.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Optimization 262

13.5 Optimization in 3D-Printing Perspective 264

13.6 Optimization of 3D-Printing FFF Controlling Factors 264

13.6.1 Nozzle Temperature 264

13.6.2 Layer Thickness 266

13.6.3 Printing Speed 267

13.6.4 Infill Density 268

References 269

14 Machine Learning in 3D Printing 273
Mohammadali Rastak, Saeedeh Vanaei, Shohreh Vanaei, and Mohammad Moezzibadi

14.1 Introduction 273

14.2 Literature Review 274

14.3 3D Printing: Applications and Obstacles 278

14.4 AI/ML and 3D Printing 279

14.4.1 Role of AI/ML in 3D Printing 279

14.4.2 ML Algorithms Review 282

14.4.3 Application of AI/ML in 3D Printing: A Roadmap from Defect Detection to Optimization Purposes 284

14.4.3.1 Defect Detection 284

14.4.3.2 Processing Parameter Optimization 286

14.4.3.3 Geometric Control Using Deep Learning 287

14.4.3.4 Cost Estimation 288

References 290

Index 295