Earth Science

1. Introduction to Earth Science

What Is Earth Science?

Earth Science, People, and the Environment

The Nature of Scientific Inquiry

Scales of Space and Time in Earth Science

Early Evolution of Earth’s Spheres

A Closer Look at the Geosphere

Earth As a System

Box 1.1 Earth As a System: Earth’s Place in the Cosmos

Box 1.2 Understanding Earth: Studying Earth from Space

 

UNIT 1: EARTH MATERIALS



 

2. Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks

Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks

Elements: The Building Blocks of Minerals

Why Atoms Bond

Properties of Minerals

Mineral Groups

Mineral Resources

Box 2.1 People and the Environment: Making Glass from Minerals

Box 2.2 Understanding Earth: Gemstones

 

3. Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

Earth As a System: The Rock Cycle

Igneous Rocks: “Formed by Fire”

Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment

Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old

Resources from Rocks and Minerals

Box 3.1 Earth As a System: The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks

Box 3.2 People and the Environment: United States Per Capita Use of Mineral and Energy Resources

 

 UNIT 2: SCULPTURING EARTH’S SURFACE

 

4. Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

Earth’s External Processes

Weathering

Mechanical Weathering

Chemical Weathering

Rates of Weathering

Soil

Controls of Soil Formation

The Soil Profile

Classifying Soils

Soil Erosion

Weathering Creates Ore Deposits

Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity

Mass Wasting and Landform Development

Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting

Classifying Mass-Wasting Processes

Slump

Rockslide

Debris Flow

Earthflow

Slow Movements

Box 4.1 Understanding Earth: The Old Man of the Mountain

Box 4.2 People and the Environment: Debris Flows on Alluvial Fans: A Case Study

from Venezuela

 

5: Running Water and Groundwater Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle

Running Water

Streamflow

The Work of Running Water

Stream Channels

Base Level and Stream Erosion

Shaping Stream Valleys

Depositional Landforms

Drainage Patterns

Floods and Flood Control

Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Distribution and Movement of Groundwater

Groundwater

Springs

Wells

Artesian Wells

Environmental Problems Associated with Groundwater

The Geologic Work of Groundwater

Box 5.1 People and the Environment: Flash Floods

Box 5.2 Understanding Earth: Measuring Groundwater Movement

Box 5.3 People and the Environment: The Case of the Disappearing Lake

 

6. Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind

Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles in the Earth System How Glaciers Move

Glacial Erosion

Glacial Deposits

Glaciers of the Ice Age

Some Indirect Effects of Ice Age Glaciers

Causes of Glaciation

Deserts

Geologic Processes in Arid Climates

Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape

Wind Erosion

Wind Deposits

Box 6.1 Understanding Earth: Glacial Ice–A Storehouse of Climate Data

Box 6.2 People and the Environment: The Disappearing Aral Sea

 

UNIT 3: FORCES WITHIN  

7. Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior

What Is an Earthquake?

San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone

Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves

Locating an Earthquake

Measuring the Size of Earthquakes

Destruction from Earthquakes

Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?

Earth’s Layered Structure

Box 7.1 People and the Environment: Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies

Box 7.2 Understanding Earth: Inge Lehmann: A Pioneering Seismologist

  

8. Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Theory Unfolds

Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time

The Great Debate

Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm

Divergent Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries

Transform Fault Boundaries

Testing the Plate Tectonics Model

Measuring Plate Motion

What Drives Plate Motion?

Plate Tectonics into the Future

Box 8.1 Understanding Earth: The Breakup of Pangaea

Box 8.2 Understanding Earth: Susan DeBari–A Career in Geology

 

9. Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions

What Is Extruded During Eruptions?

Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles

Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone

Other Volcanic Landforms

Intrusive Igneous Activity

Origin of Magma

Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity

Box 9.1 People and the Environment: Eruption of Vesuvius a.d. 79

Box 9.2 Earth As a System: Can Volcanoes Change Earth’s Climate?

 

10. Mountain Building

Rock Deformation

Folds

Faults

Joints

Mountain Building

Mountain Building at Subduction Zones

Collisional Mountain Ranges

Fault-Block Mountains

Vertical Movements of the Crust

Box 10.1 People and the Environment: The San Andreas Fault System

 

UNIT 4: DECIPHERING EARTH’S HISTORY

 

11. Geologic Time

Geology Needs a Time Scale

A Brief History of Geology

Relative Dating–Key Principles

Correlation of Rock Layers

Fossils: Evidence of Past Life

Dating with Radioactivity

The Geologic Time Scale

Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale

Box 11.1 Understanding Earth: Deciphering the Past by Understanding the Present

Box 11.2 People and the Environment: Radon–A Threat to Human Health

Box 11.3 Understanding Earth: Using Tree Rings to Date and Study the Recent Past

 

12. Earth’s History: A Brief Summary

Precambrian Time: Vast and Enigmatic

Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes

Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs

Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals

Box 12.1 Understanding Earth: The Burgess Shale

Box 12.2 Earth As a System: Demise of the Dinosaurs

 

UNIT 5: THE GLOBAL OCEAN

 

13. The Ocean Floor

The Vast World Ocean

An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor

Continental Margins

The Ocean Basin Floor

The Oceanic Ridge

Seafloor Sediments

Resources from the Seafloor

Box 13.1 Understanding Earth: A Grand Break–Evidence for Turbidity Currents

Box 13.2 Understanding Earth: Explaining Coral Atolls–Darwin’s Hypothesis

Box 13.3 Understanding Earth: Collecting Geologic History from the Deep-Ocean Floor

 

14. Ocean Water and Ocean Life

Composition of Seawater

Ocean Temperature Variation

Ocean Density Variation

The Diversity of Ocean Life

Oceanic Productivity

Oceanic Feeding Relationships

Box 14.1 People and the Environment: Desalination of Seawater–Fresh Water from the Sea

Box 14.2 Earth As a System: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities–Earth’s First Life?

Box 14.3 People and the Environment: The Iron Hypothesis–Fertilizing the Ocean to Reduce Global Warming

 

15. The Dynamic Ocean

Surface Circulation

Deep-Ocean Circulation

The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface

The Coastal Zone

Waves

Wave Erosion

Sand Movement on the Beach

Shoreline Features

Stabilizing the Shore

Coastal Classification

Tides

Box 15.1 Understanding Earth: Running Shoes as Drift Meters–Just Do It

Box 15.2 People and the Environment: The Move of the Century–Relocating the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse

 

16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Weather and Climate

Composition of the Atmosphere

Height and Structure of the Atmosphere

Earth—Sun Relationships

Energy, Heat and Temperature

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

The Fate of Incoming Solar Radiation

Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect

For the Record: Air Temperature Data

Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature

World Distribution of Temperature

Box 16.1 People and the Environment: Altering the Atmosphere’s Composition–Sources and Types of Air Pollution

Box 16.2 People and the Environment: Ozone Depletion–A Global Issue

Box 16.3 Understanding Earth: Blue Skies and Red Sunsets

 

17 Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation Water’s Changes of State

Humidity: Water Vapor in the Atmosphere

The Basis of Cloud Formation: Adiabatic Cooling

Processes that Lift Air

The Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability

Condensation and Cloud Formation

Fog

How Precipitation Forms

Coalescence Process

Forms of Precipitation

Measuring Precipitation

Box 17.1 People and the Environment: Atmospheric Stability and Air Pollution

Box 17.2 Understanding Earth: Science and Serendipity

 

18. Air Pressure and Wind Understanding Air Pressure

Measuring Air Pressure

Factors Affecting Wind

Highs and Lows

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

The Westerlies

Local Winds

How Wind Is Measured

El Nino and La Nina (Please insert tildes over “n”s)

Global Distribution of Precipitation

Box 18.1 People and the Environment: Wind Energy–An Alternative with Potential

Box 18.2 Understanding Earth: Monitoring Ocean Winds from Space

 

19. Weather Patterns and Severe Storms

Air Masses

Fronts

The Middle-Latitude Cyclone

What’s In a Name?

Thunderstorms

Tornadoes

Hurricanes

Box 19.1 Understanding Earth: A Brief Overview of the Weather Business

Box 19.2 People and the Environment: Lightning Safety

 

20. Climate

The Climate System

World Climates

Climate Classification

Humid Tropical (A) Climates

Dry (B) Climates

Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C Climates)

Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Severe Winters (D Climates)

Polar (E) Climates

Highland Climates

Human Impact on Global Climate

Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Global Warming

Climate-Feedback Mechanisms

How Aerosols Influence Climate

Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming

Box 20.1 Understanding Earth: Computer Models of Climate: Important Yet Imperfect Tools

 

UNIT 7: EARTH’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE

 

21. Origin of Modern Astronomy

Ancient Astronomy

The Birth of Modern Astronomy

Constellations

Positions in the Sky

Motions of Earth

Motions of the Earth-Moon System

Box 21.1 Understanding Earth: Foucault’s Experiment

Box 21.2 Understanding Earth: Astrology–The Forerunner of Astronomy

 

22. Touring Our Solar System

The Planets: An Overview

Earth’s Moon

The Planets: A Brief Tour

Minor Members of the Solar System

Box 22.1 Understanding Earth: Pathfinder–The First Geologist on Mars

Box 22.2 Earth As a System: Is Earth on a Collision Course?

 

23. Light, Astronomical Observations, and the Sun

The Study of Light

Astronomical Tools

The Sun

Box 23.1 Understanding Earth: The Largest Optical Telescopes

Box 23.2 Earth As a System: Variable Sun and Climatic Change

 

24. Beyond Our Solar System

Properties of Stars

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Variable Stars

Interstellar Matter

Stellar Evolution

Stellar Remnants

The Milky Way Galaxy

Red Shifts

The Big Bang

Box 24.1 Understanding Earth: Determining Distance from Magnitude

Box 24.2 Understanding Earth: Supernova 1987A

Box 24.3 Earth As a System: From Stardust to You

Appendix A:  Metric and English Units Compared

Appendix B: Earth’s Grid System

Appendix C: World Soils

Appendix D: Relative Humidity and Dew Point Tables

Appendix E: Landforms on the Conterminous United States

Glossary

Index