Optical Diagnostics for Thin Film Processing

Irving Herman graduated with S.B. and Ph.D. degrees in physics from M.I.T. in 1972 and 1977. From 1977-1986 he was a member and section leader in O-group within the Physics Department at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, where he was engaged in research in laser isotope separation of deuterium and tritium, and the use of direct laser writing in thin film processing. In 1986, he joined the faculty of Columbia University, where he is now Professor of Applied Physics and a member of the Columbia Center for Integrated Science and Engineering (CISE), the Energy Frontiers Research Center (EFRC), and the Center for Electron Transport in Molecular Nanostructures (NSEC). From 2006-2012 he was chair of the Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics. From 1998-2010 he was Director of the Columbia Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (MRSEC) [The Center for Nanostructured Materials], and as part of this he led an extensive education outreach program. He oversees the Shared Materials Characterization Laboratory and is a member of the Clean Room Committee. He is a fellow of the American Physical Society and the Optical Society of America. His research concentrates on the fundamental aspects and applications of laser interactions with matter and nanoscience. This includes properties of nanocrystals and films composed of nanocrystals, optical physics of the solid state, molecular and chemical physics, thin film processing, and optical spectroscopy.

Overview of Optical Diagnostics: Diagnostics vs. Sensors vs. Transducers. Attributes of in Situ Optical Diagnostics. Performance Characteristics of Sensors. The Need for in Situ Diagnostics. Survey of OpticalProbes. Survey of Nonoptical Probes. Thin Film Processes and Their Diagnostics Needs. The Properties of Light:Propagation. Imaging. Polarization Properties of Light. The Structure of Matter: Separation of Electronic and Nuclear Motion. EnergyLevels in Atoms, Molecules, and Ions. Energy Levels in Solids.The Interactions of Light with Matter for Spectroscopy: Dipole Moments and Polarization. Quantum Mechanics of the Interaction of Light with Matter. Spectroscopy. Nonlinear Optical Interactions. Heating by the Probing Laser. Diagnostics Equipment and Methods: Optical Components. Signal Collection and Analysis.Optical Emission Spectroscopy: Mechanisms for Optical Excitation. Instrumentation. Applications in Processing. Plasma Etching. Laser-Induced Fluorescence: Experimental Considerations. Applications. Transmission (Absorption): Experimental Considerations. Gas-Phase Absorption. Transmission through Adsorbates or Thin Films. Transmission through Substrates for Thermometry. Reflection: Optics of Reflection. Reflectometry, Ellipsometry, and Polarimetry. Optical Dielectric Functions. Reflection at an Interface with a Semi Infinite Medium. Interferometry. Photoreflectance. Infrared Reflection-Absorption Spectroscopy. Differential Reflectometry. Surface Photoabsorption and Brewster Angle Reflectometry. Reflectance-Difference (Anisotropy) Spectroscopy. Ellipsometry.Interferometry and Photography: Interferometry. Photography, Imaging, and Microscopy. Elastic Scattering and Diffraction from Particles and Nonplanar Surfaces (Scatterometry): Detection of Particles. Diffraction from Surface Features. Speckle Photography and Interferometry. Raman Scattering: Kinematics and Dynamics of Spontaneous Raman Scattering. Instrumentation. Thermometry and Density Measurements in Gases. Real-Time Raman Probing of Solids and Surfaces. Pyrometry: Theoretical and Experimental Considerations. Single-Wavelength Pyrometry. Dual-Wavelength Pyrometry. Pyrometric Interferometry. Thermal Radiation during Pulsed-Laser Deposition. Photoluminescence: Experimental Considerations. Probing Defects and Damage. Thermometry. Spectroscopies Employing Laser Heating: Laser-Induced Thermal Desorption. Thermal Wave Optical Spectroscopies. Nonlinear Optical Diagnostics: Coherent Anti stokes Raman Scattering. Surface Second-Harmonic Generation. Third-Harmonic Generation in Gases. Optical Electron/Ion Probes: Photoionization. Photoemission. Optogalvanic Spectroscopy. Optical Thermometry: The Need for Thermometry in Thin Film Processing. Nonoptical Probes of Temperature. The Physical Basis of Optical Thermometry. Comparison of Optical Thermometry Probes. Appendix: Representative Citations in Real-Time Optical Thermometry in Thin Film Processing. Reviews of Optical Thermometry. Citations for Optical Thermometry in Gases. Citations for Optical Thermometry of Wafers. Data Analysis and Process Control: Data Acquisition and Analysis. Process Modeling. Process Control. References. Subject Index.