Urban Geography

David H. Kaplan is Professor of Geography at Kent State University. His research interests include nationalism, borderlands, ethnic and racial segregation, urban and regional development, housing finance, and sustainable transportation. Dr. Kaplan has published 14 books and more than 70 articles and book chapters. He edits the Geographical Review and National Identities and is a former President of the American Association of Geographers.

Steven R. Holloway is Professor of Geography and Director of Urban and Metropolitan Studies at the University of Georgia. He conducts research on a variety of urban-centered topics, including racial segregation, redlining, mortgage lending discrimination, wildfire risk, and urban heat islands. He has published numerous articles in peer-reviewed journals including Urban Geography, Applied Geography, and The Professional Geographer.

Preface xiii

1 An Introduction to the Changing Field of Urban Geography 1

Why We Study Cities 1

How We Study Cities 4

The Field of Urban Geography 5

Box 1.1 Bright Lights, Big Cities 6

The Origin and Evolution of Urban Geography 8

Approaches to Urban Geographic Research 9

Streams of Urban Geographic Research 10

Spatial Analysis 10

Marxist Urban Geography and Urban Political Economy 13

Critical Social Theory in Urban Geography 13

Feminist Urban Geography 14

Postmodern Urban Geography 14

Nature and Urban Geography 15

Race 15

Defining Cities 16

Rural–Urban Continuum 16

What Is the Spatial Extent of Cities? 17

Box 1.2 Micropolitan Areas 19

Introduction to This Textbook 21

Wrapping Up 21

Readings 22

2 the Origins and Development of Cities 23

What Are Cities? 23

Preconditions to Urban Formation 25

Box 2.1 Cities without Agriculture? 25

Ecology, Technology, and Power 26

Theories of Urban Origins 27

Patterns of Early Urbanization 30

Locations of Early Cities 30

Diffusion of Urbanization 30

Box 2.2 Uncovering Lost Cities 32

Urban Evolution and Early Economic Imperatives: Traditional Cities 33

The Early City- States: Sumeria 33

Other Ancient Cities 36

Imperial Cities 39

Box 2.3 The Collective Alternative 39

Cities as Engines of Economic Growth: Capitalism, Industrialism, and Urbanization 43

Box 2.4 Death of a City 44

The New Trading Cities 44

Box 2.5 The First Ghettos 50

Industrial Cities 51

Box 2.6 Designing Spaces: Bastide Cities and the Grand Manner 52

Wrapping Up 57

Readings 57

3 the Evolution of the American Urban System: Origins Through Industrialization 59

Urban Systems and Urban Hierarchies 59

Rank- Size Rule and Primate Cities 61

Mercantilism and the Development of the Colonial Urban System 63

Box 3.1 America’s Anti- Urban Bias 67

Box 3.2 Central Place Theory 70

Economic Eras of North American Urbanization 70

Economic Eras, Transportation Networks, and the Evolution of the US Urban System 72

Frontier Mercantilism (1790–1830s) 74

Box 3.3 The Erie Canal 76

Early Industrial Capitalism and Iron Rails (1830s–1880s) 77

National Industrial Capitalism and Steel Rails (1880s–1920s) 82

Wrapping Up 87

Readings 88

4 Economic Eras and the Urban System: Industrialization, Decline, and Globalization 89

1920s–1970s: Mature Industrial Capitalism 89

Automobiles 89

Box 4.1 The Interstate Highway System 92

The Great Depression 93

Airplanes 94

1970s–Present: Post- Industrial Neoliberal Capitalism 96

An Urban System in Crisis 96

Rise of the Service and Information Economies 101

High Technology and the Creative Economy 103

Globalization and the Global Urban System 104

Capitalism, Power, and World Cities 105

The World City Hierarchy 107

The Global City 110

A Network of World Cities: Global Interconnections 111

The Tourist World City 111

Telecommunications, Interconnectivity, and World Cities 112

Dispersal or Concentration? 113

Telecommunications and Financial Markets 114

Telecommunications and Urban Society 114

Internet Connectivity and Cloud Data Infrastructure 115

Box 4.2 The Gravity Model in Local and Regional and Global Context 116

Wrapping Up 118

Readings 119

5 Urban Land Use, the Central Business District, Gentrification, And the Growth of Suburbs 120

Toward a Model of Land Use 121

Urban Functions 121

Model of Land Value 122

The Central Business District 125

Manufacturing in the Frame 127

Residential Users 133

Box 5.1 Health and Urban Geography: The Impact of COVID- 19 on Downtowns 135

Revitalizing Downtowns 137

Central Business Districts 137

Box 5.2 Downtown Casinos 138

America’s New Downtowns 139

Revitalizing Neighborhoods: Gentrification 140

Five Waves of Gentrification 142

Suburban Changes 145

Box 5.3 Megalopolis 148

Wrapping Up 149

Readings 149

6 Foundations of Urban Social Landscapes 151

Ecological Approach to Cities 151

“Community Lost”: European Perspectives on Cities 152

The Chicago School of Sociology 153

Box 6.1 Rebutting the “Community Lost” Perspective 154

Box 6.2 Health and Urban Geography: Chicago and the 1918 Influenza Epidemic 157

Traditional Models of Urban Spatial Structure 160

Burgess Concentric Zone Model 160

Hoyt Sector Model 160

Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model 162

More Complex Models 162

Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology 163

Box 6.3 Wirth’s “Urbanism as a Way of Life” 164

The Urban Mosaic 165

Contemporary Urban Social Space: Globalization and Cities of Difference 165

Globalization: General Trends 167

Elements of the Global City 168

“In Between” Neighborhoods in the Global City 170

Los Angeles School Urbanism 172

Cities of Difference 173

Wrapping Up 176

Readings 177

7 Urban Housing Markets: Sprawl, Blight, and Regeneration 179

Housing and Housing Markets 179

Sectors of Housing Tenure 180

Housing Markets: Demand 181

Box 7.1 Hedonic House Price Models 181

Box 7.2 NIMBY, LULUs, and YIMBY: How Homeowners React to Adjacent Land Uses 182

Housing Markets: Supply 183

Housing Market Geographies and Neighborhood Change 183

Urban Ecology and Housing Markets: Invasion and Succession 183

Filtering and Vacancy Chains 184

Life‐ Cycle Notions of Neighborhood Change 186

Government Involvement in Housing Markets 187

Securing Home Ownership through Loan Guarantees 188

The Secondary Mortgage Market: A New System of Housing Finance 189

Promoting Home Ownership to Address Inequality: Promise and Peril 190

Unequal Access to Housing 190

Real Estate Agents and Differentiated Access 190

Discrimination in Lending 194

Accumulated Impacts of Housing Market Discrimination 195

Box 7.3 Housing Markets and the Global Financial Crisis 196

Suburban Housing and Postwar Sprawl 199

Supply and Demand Factors 199

Box 7.4 Health and Urban Geography: Sprawl Leads to Depression 200

Sprawl and the Federal Government: Housing Finance 201

Sprawl and the Federal Government: Freeways and Automobility 202

“Blight” and Inner‐ City Housing 203

Early Postwar Redevelopment Pressures 203

The Housing Dynamics of Redevelopment 204

Displacement and Public Housing 205

Wrapping Up 208

Readings 208

8 Segregation, Race, and Urban Poverty 210

Current Patterns of Racial Residential Segregation 211

Census 2020 Figures 211

Box 8.1 Types and Measures of Segregation 212

Recent Change 215

What Causes Segregation? 217

Race and the North American Ghetto 219

The “First” North American Ghetto 219

Box 8.2 Anti- Black White Mob Violence: 1919 Red Summer and the 1921

Tulsa Race Massacre 221

Postwar Institutionalized Ghettos 224

Poverty and the City and Beyond 231

Spatial Concentration of Urban Poverty 231

Consequences of Concentrated Poverty: Neighborhood Effects 233

Box 8.3 Health and Urban Geography: Race, Poverty, and COVID- 19 Health 234

Responding to Urban Poverty 237

War on Poverty 237

Retrenchment 238

Wrapping Up 241

Readings 242

9 Immigration, Ethnicity, and Urbanism 244

Definitions of Immigrants 245

The Era of Immigration and US Urbanization 246

The New Catholic Arrivals 247

Box 9.1 Strangers From a Different Shore: Chinese and Japanese Migration to the United States 248

The New European Immigration 252

The Ethnic Kaleidoscope of Today 256

Latino Migration and Its Impact on Cities 259

Box 9.2 Ethnic Diversity Within Canadian Cities 260

Mexicans 263

Cubans 265

Box 9.3 The Creation of Ethnic Economies 266

Puerto Ricans 268

Latino Influences 269

New Asian Immigration 270

Urban Orientation and Some Models of Asian Segregation 271

Asian Indians 273

Indochinese 274

Koreans 276

Asian Influences 277

Wrapping Up 277

Readings 278

10 Metropolitan Governance and Fragmentation 279

Urban Governance and the Growth of Services 280

Expanding Urban Services 280

Box 10.1 Health and Urban Geography: Public Health and the City 281

Box 10.2 Street Plans in Early America 283

Financing the City 285

Who Governs the City? 288

Stages in Urban Governance 288

Power in the City 290

Contemporary Fragmentation in the Metropolis 293

Increasing Fragmentation 293

A Positive View of Metropolitan Fragmentation 295

Fiscal Disparities 296

Countering the Fragmented Metropolis 298

Annexations 298

Metropolitan Government 301

Box 10.3 Metropolitanization and Language in Montreal 302

Wrapping Up 304

Readings 304

11 Planning the Better City 305

Making the Case for Planning 306

Aesthetics 306

Efficiency 308

Social Equity Planning 309

Maintaining Property Values 311

Environmental Protection 311

Development of Modern Planning 313

Visionaries and the Urban Ideal 313

Box 11.1 Health and Urban Geography: Planning a Healthier City 314

Legal Basis for Planning 318

Box 11.2 Planning Rights in Other Countries 320

Growth of Planning as a Profession in the United States 321

Political Nature of Planning 323

Comprehensive Plans and Tools of Modern Planning 325

Box 11.3 The Search for Fair Share Housing in New Jersey 326

Elements and Steps in Comprehensive Plan Development 327

Zoning 329

Problems with Zoning and Responses 332

Growth Management 337

Wrapping Up 338

Readings 339

12 Urban Transportation 341

Urban Transportation and Changes in Urban Form 342

The Walking City 343

Horsecar and Streetcar City 344

Recreational Auto Era 346

Freeway Auto Era 347

Transportation Policy Principles and Actors 349

Principles of Transportation and Costs and Benefits 349

Levels of Governance 351

Transportation Behavior 354

Travel Types 354

Box 12.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Transportation in the Time of COVID 356

Modes of Transportation in Commuting and Other Forms of Travel 356

Box 12.2 Building a Sustainable Transportation Network 360

Social Aspects of Transportation 363

Access 364

Box 12.3 The Long Road Home (and to Work) 366

Displacement 367

Wrapping Up 370

Readings 370

13 the Urban Environment 372

Conceptual Foundations 372

Urban Environmental Kuznets Curve 373

City–Nature Dialectic 374

Urban Political Ecology 375

Realms of Urban Nature 376

Water 376

Box 13.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Political Ecology and Water in Flint, Michigan 378

Urban Air 383

Box 13.2 Health and Urban Geography: Canadian Wildfires and US Air Quality 384

Box 13.3 Health and Urban Geography: Killer Smog 385

Garbage and Solid Wastes 387

Energy 390

Urban Hazards and Disasters 392

Flooding 393

Hurricanes (Typhoons, Cyclones) 393

Earthquakes 395

Heat 395

Wildfires 396

Cities and Climate Change 398

Wrapping Up 398

Readings 399

14 Cities in the Developed World 400

European Cities 400

Urbanization and the European City System 401

Characteristic Features of European Cities 403

Box 14.1 Stockholm’s Urban Planning 406

Box 14.2 Health and Urban Geography: COVID- 19 Responses in European Cities 408

Box 14.3 Postwar Urban Developments: Rome’s EUR Center and Paris’s La Defense 412

Aspects of Change 417

Cities in Post- Communist Europe 420

Communist Urban Development 422

Post- Communist Development 423

Box 14.4 The Old and New City of Prague 424

Cities in Japan 425

Structure of Japanese Cities 426

Changes in Japanese Cities 428

Wrapping Up 428

Readings 429

15 Cities in the Less Developed and Newly Developed World 430

The New Urban Majority 432

How the Cities Have Grown 433

Demographic Factors Involved in Urban Growth 436

Box 15.1 Migration as a Household Process 438

Origins of Urbanization in Less Developed Countries 439

Modernization Perspective 439

International Political Economy Perspective 441

Characteristics of LDC Cities 447

Effects of Growth 447

Housing 448

Box 15.2 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Health in the Developing World 450

Box 15.3 Cities in the Sand: Egypt’s New Towns 454

Employment Opportunities and the Informal Sector 458

Wrapping Up 462

Readings 462

16 Regional Variations in Urban Structure and Form in the Less Developed World 464

The Latin American City 465

Box 16.1 The Middle Eastern City 466

Box 16.2 Health and Urban Geography: China’s COVID- 19 Response 467

Colonial Legacies 468

Modern Latin American Cities 468

Sub- Saharan African Cities 475

Indigenous Influences 476

European Intervention 478

Box 16.3 Apartheid in Urban South Africa 478

Modern African Cities 480

South Asian Cities 482

A Typology of South Asian Cities 483

Modern Challenges 486

Southeast Asian Cities 489

Indigenous Influences: Sacred and Market Cities 489

The Colonial City in Southeast Asia 491

Modern Cities 493

Wrapping Up 497

Readings 497

Index 499