Fundamentals of Physics, Extended

1 Measurement 1

1.1 Measuring Things, Including Lengths 1

1.2 Time 5

1.3 Mass 6

2 Motion Along a Straight Line 13

2.1 Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity 13

2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 18

2.3 Acceleration 20

2.4 Constant Acceleration 23

2.5 Free-Fall Acceleration 28

2.6 Graphical Integration In Motion Analysis 30

3 Vectors 44

3.1 Vectors and Their Components 44

3.2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components 50

3.3 Multiplying Vectors 52

4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 67

4.1 Position and Displacement 67

4.2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity 70

4.3 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration 73

4.4 Projectile Motion 75

4.5 Uniform Circular Motion 82

4.6 Relative Motion In One Dimension 84

4.7 Relative Motion In Two Dimensions 86

5 Force and Motion—I 101

5.1 Newton's First and Second Laws 101

5.2 Some Particular Forces 109

5.3 Applying Newton's Laws 113

6 Force and Motion—II 132

6.1 Friction 132

6.2 The Drag Force and Terminal Speed 138

6.3 Uniform Circular Motion 140

7 Kinetic Energy and Work 156

7.1 Kinetic Energy 156

7.2 Work and Kinetic Energy 158

7.3 Work Done By The Gravitational Force 163

7.4 Work Done By A Spring Force 167

7.5 Work Done By A General Variable Force 170

7.6 Power 174

8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 186

8.1 Potential Energy 186

8.2 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 193

8.3 Reading A Potential Energy Curve 196

8.4 Work Done On A System By An External Force 201

8.5 Conservation of Energy 205

9 Center of Mass and Linear Momentum 225

9.1 Center of Mass 225

9.2 Newton's Second Law For A System of Particles 229

9.3 Linear Momentum 234

9.4 Collision and Impulse 236

9.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum 240

9.6 Momentum and Kinetic Energy In Collisions 243

9.7 Elastic Collisions In One Dimension 247

9.8 Collisions In Two Dimensions 251

9.9 Systems With Varying Mass: A Rocket 252

10 Rotation 270

10.1 Rotational Variables 270

10.2 Rotation With Constant Angular Acceleration 279

10.3 Relating The Linear and Angular Variables 281

10.4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation 285

10.5 Calculating The Rotational Inertia 286

10.6 Torque 291

10.7 Newton's Second Law For Rotation 292

10.8 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy 296

11 Rolling, Torque, and Angular Momentum 310

11.1 Rolling As Translation and Rotation Combined 310

11.2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling 313

11.3 The Yo-Yo 316

11.4 Torque Revisited 317

11.5 Angular Momentum 320

11.6 Newton's Second Law In Angular Form 322

11.7 Angular Momentum of A Rigid Body 325

11.8 Conservation of Angular Momentum 328

11.9 Precession of A Gyroscope 333

12 Equilibrium and Elasticity 344

12.1 Equilibrium 344

12.2 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium 349

12.3 Elasticity 355

13 Gravitation 372

13.1 Newton's Law of Gravitation 372

13.2 Gravitation and The Principle of Superposition 375

13.3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface 377

13.4 Gravitation Inside Earth 381

13.5 Gravitational Potential Energy 383

13.6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws 387

13.7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy 390

13.8 Einstein and Gravitation 393

14 Fluids 406

14.1 Fluids, Density, and Pressure 406

14.2 Fluids At Rest 409

14.3 Measuring Pressure 412

14.4 Pascal's Principle 413

14.5 Archimedes' Principle 415

14.6 The Equation of Continuity 419

14.7 Bernoulli's Equation 423

15 Oscillations 436

15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 436

15.2 Energy In Simple Harmonic Motion 444

15.3 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator 446

15.4 Pendulums, Circular Motion 448

15.5 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion 453

15.6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 456

16 Waves—I 468

16.1 Transverse Waves 468

16.2 Wave Speed On A Stretched String 476

16.3 Energy and Power of A Wave Traveling Along A String 478

16.4 The Wave Equation 480

16.5 Interference of Waves 482

16.6 Phasors 487

16.7 Standing Waves and Resonance 490

17 Waves—II 505

17.1 Speed of Sound 505

17.2 Traveling Sound Waves 508

17.3 Interference 511

17.4 Intensity and Sound Level 515

17.5 Sources of Musical Sound 518

17.6 Beats 522

17.7 The Doppler Effect 524

17.8 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves 529

18 Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 541

18.1 Temperature 541

18.2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 545

18.3 Thermal Expansion 547

18.4 Absorption of Heat 550

18.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 556

18.6 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 562

19 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 578

19.1 Avogadro's Number 578

19.2 Ideal Gases 579

19.3 Pressure, Temperature, and Rms Speed 583

19.4 Translational Kinetic Energy 586

19.5 Mean Free Path 587

19.6 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds 589

19.7 The Molar Specific Heats of An Ideal Gas 593

19.8 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats 597

19.9 The Adiabatic Expansion of An Ideal Gas 600

20 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 613

20.1 Entropy 613

20.2 Entropy In The Real World: Engines 620

20.3 Refrigerators and Real Engines 626

20.4 A Statistical View of Entropy 629

21 Coulomb's Law 641

21.1 Coulomb's Law 641

21.2 Charge is Quantized 652

21.3 Charge is Conserved 654

22 Electric Fields 665

22.1 The Electric Field 665

22.2 The Electric Field Due To A Charged Particle 668

22.3 The Electric Field Due To A Dipole 670

22.4 The Electric Field Due To A Line of Charge 673

22.5 The Electric Field Due To A Charged Disk 679

22.6 A Point Charge In An Electric Field 680

22.7 A Dipole In An Electric Field 683

23 Gauss' Law 696

23.1 Electric Flux 696

23.2 Gauss' Law 701

23.3 A Charged Isolated Conductor 705

23.4 Applying Gauss' Law: Cylindrical Symmetry 708

23.5 Applying Gauss' Law: Planar Symmetry 710

23.6 Applying Gauss' Law: Spherical Symmetry 713

24 Electric Potential 724

24.1 Electric Potential 724

24.2 Equipotential Surfaces and The Electric Field 729

24.3 Potential Due To A Charged Particle 733

24.4 Potential Due To An Electric Dipole 736

24.5 Potential Due To A Continuous Charge Distribution 738

24.6 Calculating The Field From The Potential 741

24.7 Electric Potential Energy of A System of Charged Particles 743

24.8 Potential of A Charged Isolated Conductor 746

25 Capacitance 759

25.1 Capacitance 759

25.2 Calculating The Capacitance 761

25.3 Capacitors In Parallel and In Series 765

25.4 Energy Stored In An Electric Field 770

25.5 Capacitor With A Dielectric 774

25.6 Dielectrics and Gauss' Law 778

26 Current and Resistance 789

26.1 Electric Current 789

26.2 Current Density 792

26.3 Resistance and Resistivity 796

26.4 Ohm's Law 801

26.5 Power, Semiconductors, Superconductors 805

27 Circuits 816

27.1 Single-Loop Circuits 816

27.2 Multiloop Circuits 826

27.3 The Ammeter and The Voltmeter 833

27.4 Rc Circuits 833

28 Magnetic Fields 850

28.1 Magnetic Fields and The Definition of 850

28.2 Crossed Fields: Discovery of The Electron 855

28.3 Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect 857

28.4 A Circulating Charged Particle 861

28.5 Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons 866

28.6 Magnetic Force On A Current-Carrying Wire 869

28.7 Torque On A Current Loop 872

28.8 The Magnetic Dipole Moment 874

29 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents 886

29.1 Magnetic Field Due To A Current 886

29.2 Force Between Two Parallel Currents 892

29.3 Ampere's Law 894

29.4 Solenoids and Toroids 899

29.5 A Current-Carrying Coil As A Magnetic Dipole 901

30 Induction and Inductance 915

30.1 Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law 915

30.2 Induction and Energy Transfers 923

30.3 Induced Electric Fields 927

30.4 Inductors and Inductance 932

30.5 Self-Induction 934

30.6 Rl Circuits 935

30.7 Energy Stored In A Magnetic Field 940

30.8 Energy Density of A Magnetic Field 942

30.9 Mutual Induction 943

31 Electromagnetic Oscillations and Alternating Current 956

31.1 LC Oscillations 956

31.2 Damped Oscillations In An Rlc Circuit 963

31.3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple Circuits 966

31.4 The Series Rlc Circuit 974

31.5 Power In Alternating-Current Circuits 982

31.6 Transformers 985

32 Maxwell's Equations; Magnetism of Matter 998

32.1 Gauss' Law For Magnetic Fields 998

32.2 Induced Magnetic Fields 1000

32.3 Displacement Current 1003

32.4 Magnets 1007

32.5 Magnetism and Electrons 1009

32.6 Diamagnetism 1015

32.7 Paramagnetism 1016

32.8 Ferromagnetism 1019

33 Electromagnetic Waves 1032

33.1 Electromagnetic Waves 1032

33.2 Energy Transport and The Poynting Vector 1040

33.3 Radiation Pressure 1043

33.4 Polarization 1045

33.5 Reflection and Refraction 1050

33.6 Total Internal Reflection 1056

33.7 Polarization By Reflection 1059

34 Images 1072

34.1 Images and Plane Mirrors 1072

34.2 Spherical Mirrors 1076

34.3 Spherical Refracting Surfaces 1083

34.4 Thin Lenses 1086

34.5 Optical Instruments 1094

34.6 Three Proofs 1098

35 Interference 1111

35.1 Light As A Wave 1111

35.2 Young's Interference Experiment 1117

35.3 Interference and Double-Slit Intensity 1122

35.4 Interference From Thin Films 1126

35.5 Michelson's Interferometer 1135

36 Diffraction 1148

36.1 Single-Slit Diffraction 1148

36.2 Intensity In Single-Slit Diffraction 1153

36.3 Diffraction By A Circular Aperture 1158

36.4 Diffraction By A Double Slit 1162

36.5 Diffraction Gratings 1166

36.6 Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power 1170

36.7 X-Ray Diffraction 1173

37 Relativity 1186

37.1 Simultaneity and Time Dilation 1186

37.2 The Relativity of Length 1196

37.3 The Lorentz Transformation 1199

37.4 The Relativity of Velocities 1204

37.5 Doppler Effect For Light 1205

37.6 Momentum and Energy 1209

38 Photons and Matter Waves 1225

38.1 The Photon, The Quantum of Light 1225

38.2 The Photoelectric Effect 1227

38.3 Photons, Momentum, Compton Scattering, Light Interference 1230

38.4 The Birth of Quantum Physics 1236

38.5 Electrons and Matter Waves 1238

38.6 Schrödinger's Equation 1242

38.7 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 1244

38.8 Reflection From A Potential Step 1246

38.9 Tunneling Through A Potential Barrier 1248

39 More About Matter Waves 1258

39.1 Energies of A Trapped Electron 1258

39.2 Wave Functions of A Trapped Electron 1264

39.3 An Electron In A Finite Well 1268

39.4 Two- and Three-Dimensional Electron Traps 1270

39.5 The Hydrogen Atom 1275

40 All About Atoms 1293

40.1 Properties of Atoms 1293

40.2 The Stern–Gerlach Experiment 1300

40.3 Magnetic Resonance 1303

40.4 Exclusion Principle and Multiple Electrons In A Trap 1304

40.5 Building The Periodic Table 1308

40.6 X Rays and The Ordering of The Elements 1310

40.7 Lasers 1314

41 Conduction of Electricity in Solids 1327

41.1 The Electrical Properties of Metals 1327

41.2 Semiconductors and Doping 1336

41.3 THE P-N Junction and The Transistor 1341

42 Nuclear Physics 1352

42.1 Discovering The Nucleus 1352

42.2 Some Nuclear Properties 1355

42.3 Radioactive Decay 1362

42.4 Alpha Decay 1365

42.5 Beta Decay 1368

42.6 Radioactive Dating 1371

42.7 Measuring Radiation Dosage 1372

42.8 Nuclear Models 1373

43 Energy from The Nucleus 1385

43.1 Nuclear Fission 1385

43.2 The Nuclear Reactor 1392

43.3 A Natural Nuclear Reactor 1396

43.4 Thermonuclear Fusion: The Basic Process 1398

43.5 Thermonuclear Fusion In The Sun and Other Stars 1400

43.6 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion 1402

44 Quarks, Leptons, and The Big Bang 1410

44.1 General Properties of Elementary Articles 1410

44.2 Leptons, Hadrons, and Strangeness 1419

44.3 Quarks and Messenger Particles 1425

44.4 Cosmology 1431

Appendices

A The International System of Units (SI) A-1

B Some Fundamental Constants of Physics A-3

C Some Astronomical Data A-4

D Conversion Factors A-5

E Mathematical Formulas A-9

F Properties of The Elements A-12

G Periodic Table of The Elements A-15

Answers

To Checkpoints and Odd-Numbered Questions and Problems AN-1

Index I-1