Additive Manufacturing Hybrid Processes for Composites Systems (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 9
Acronyms 16
Symbols and Units 20
1 State-of-the-Art Review and Roadmap 24
1.1 Materials, Processes and Applications Mapping 25
1.1.1 Scientific Status 25
1.1.2 Major Challenges and Opportunities 31
1.1.3 Gaps, Barriers and Bottleneck to be Solved 34
1.1.4 Conclusions 35
1.2 New Strategies for AM FRTP Parts Performance Improvement 35
1.2.1 Scientific Status 35
1.2.2 Major Challenges and Opportunities 48
1.2.3 Gaps, Barriers and Bottleneck to Be Solved 50
1.2.4 Conclusions 51
1.3 FRTP Parts Certification and Quality Assurance 52
1.3.1 Scientific Status 52
1.3.2 Major Challenges and Opportunities 57
1.3.3 Gaps, Barriers and Bottleneck to Be Solved 58
1.3.4 Conclusions 59
1.4 LCA/LCC of Composite Materials 60
1.4.1 Scientific Status 60
1.4.2 Major Challenges and Opportunities 67
1.4.3 Gaps, Barriers and Bottleneck to be Solved 68
1.4.4 Conclusions 69
1.5 AM and Composites Research Roadmap 69
1.5.1 Composite Additive Manufacturing Research Roadmap 69
1.5.2 Industry Targets and Societal Impact 71
1.5.3 Conclusions 72
References 73
2 Design and Modelling Approaches 80
2.1 Introduction 80
2.2 Design for Hybrid AM 82
2.2.1 Definition and Classification of Hybrid AM 82
2.2.2 Hybrid AM Manufacturing Systems 84
2.2.3 Hybrid AM Combining CNC Machining and FDM 85
2.2.4 Case Studies with Hybrid AM with CNC Machining of FDM Parts 86
2.3 Multifunctional and Graded Features (MFG) 89
2.3.1 What Are Multifunctional and Graded Materials. Why Their Use? 89
2.3.2 When and Where to Use MFG by AM 91
2.3.3 How to Design and Print MFG?—Case Studies 94
2.4 Design Methodologies, Modelling and Tools 96
2.4.1 Design Methodologies for Hybrid AM 96
2.4.2 Modelling for Hybrid AM 99
2.4.3 Simulation Tools for Hybrid AM 99
2.5 Sustainability Assessment in AM-Related Processes 100
2.5.1 Challenges of AM-Related Technologies in Sustainability Dimensions 100
2.5.2 Proposed Approach for Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Assessment 102
2.5.3 Economic Assessment 103
2.5.4 Environmental Assessment 105
2.5.5 Social Assessment 107
2.5.6 Major Challenges and Opportunities 108
References 109
3 New Material Concepts 115
3.1 Introduction 116
3.2 Material Concepts and Composition 116
3.2.1 Characterization of Commercial Filaments 116
3.2.2 Summary of Main Results 124
3.3 Reinforcements Impregnation 125
3.3.1 Development of PEEK and PA66 Formulations 125
3.3.2 Filaments Processing 125
3.4 Material Concepts Validation 127
3.4.1 Characterization of PEEK and PA66 Formulations 127
3.4.2 Summary of Main Results 140
3.4.3 Formulation Processing Requirements for AM 142
3.4.4 Materials for Optical Fibre Sensors 146
3.4.5 Materials for Nitinol Fibre Reinforcement 147
3.5 Conclusions 153
References 154
4 New Process Concepts: Composites Processing 156
4.1 Design and Development of a Prototype Extrusion Head 157
4.2 Numerical Assessment 160
4.2.1 Heat Transfer Simulations 160
4.2.2 Simulation Conditions 160
4.2.3 Results and Discussion 163
4.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations 163
4.3.1 Governing Equations 163
4.3.2 Computational Details 165
4.3.3 Results and Discussion 166
4.4 Extrusion Head Improvements 169
4.4.1 Overview and Specifications 169
4.4.2 Concept Design 170
4.4.3 Concluding Remarks 171
4.5 Hybridization and Deposition Strategies and Paths 173
4.5.1 Experimental Work—Full Factorial DOE Approach 174
4.5.2 Experimental Procedure 176
4.5.3 Results and Discussion 179
4.5.4 Deposition Strategies 180
4.6 Process Concepts Validation 181
4.6.1 Experimental Assessment of the First Prototype Extrusion Head 182
4.6.2 Definitions and Equipment and Materials 182
4.6.3 FDM Machine Control 184
4.6.4 Processability of a Composite Filament—Preliminary Appreciation 188
4.6.5 Concluding Remarks 190
4.7 Proposal 190
References 191
5 Systems Design for FRP Hybrid AM 194
5.1 Introduction to Hybrid Machines 195
5.2 AM Capable Technologies Suited for Hybrid Processes 196
5.2.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 196
5.2.2 Direct Energy Deposition (DED) 197
5.2.3 AM Relative to Other Processes 198
5.3 Hybrid Systems and Additive Manufacturing as a Tool for Design for AM—Key Approaches 200
5.3.1 Strategy for DfAM 201
5.3.2 Methods for Choosing Components for AM 202
5.3.3 Design Rules for AM 203
5.4 Experimental Hybrid Systems in FDM/FFF—the FIBR3D Case Study 206
5.4.1 Preliminary Studies—Machine Design and Workflow 206
5.4.2 Experimental Rig Setup—Specifications and System Architecture 212
5.4.3 Experimental Hybrid System—Specifications and System Architecture 218
5.5 Platform Validation—Sample Prints and Conclusions 219
References 221
6 Path Generation, Control, and Monitoring 223
6.1 Optimal Orientation of Objects 224
6.1.1 Measuring Printing Quality 225
6.1.2 A Global Optimization Approach 229
6.1.3 A Multi-objective Optimization Approach 230
6.2 5-Axis Printer and Emulator—Graphics Emulator Tool—FIBR3DEmul 232
6.2.1 FDM Simulation 233
6.2.2 The Virtual C3DPrinter 234
6.2.3 Printer Control 235
6.2.4 Results and Discussion 237
6.3 Curved Path Planning 238
6.3.1 Curved Layer Manufacturing 239
6.4 Printing Complex Objects 241
6.4.1 Complex Objects Printing Approach 242
6.4.2 Heuristic to Obtain an Optimal Building Sequence 245
6.4.3 Results 246
6.5 Non-destructive Inspection Path Planning 248
References 253
7 Experimental Testing and Process Parametrization 257
7.1 Introduction 257
7.2 Experimental 262
7.2.1 Material Filaments 262
7.2.2 Material Properties 262
7.2.3 Experimental Methodology for FDM Printing 264
7.3 Results and Discussion 268
7.3.1 Tensile Testing Samples 268
7.3.2 DCB Samples 277
7.4 Conclusions 281
References 282
8 Reliability and NDT Methods 284
8.1 Defects in Additive Manufacturing of Composites 285
8.2 Non-destructive Testing Techniques for AM of Composites 285
8.2.1 Ultrasound 285
8.2.2 X-ray 289
8.2.3 Thermography 290
8.2.4 Eddy Currents 291
8.2.5 Optical-Based NDT 292
8.2.6 Overview of NDT Techniques 294
8.3 Numerical Simulation in NDT: State of the Art 294
8.3.1 Thermography 295
8.3.2 Ultrasound 296
8.3.3 Eddy Currents 298
8.3.4 Other Techniques 298
8.4 Experimental Validation of NDT 300
8.4.1 Standard Defects Production 300
8.4.2 Eddy Currents 300
8.4.3 Immersion Ultrasound 301
8.4.4 X-ray 301
8.4.5 Thermography 302
8.4.6 Combined Thermography and Optical Fibre Hybrid Sensors Analysis of Thermal Evolution Inside a Composite 303
8.4.7 3D Scanning Device for NDT 307
8.4.8 Characterization Techniques of 3D Scanning Device 308
8.5 Thermography NDT Module 309
8.6 Ultrasound Air-Coupled NDT Module 309
8.7 Conclusions 310
References 311
9 Case Studies 315
9.1 Introduction 315
9.2 Case Study Selection Criteria 316
9.2.1 Motivation 317
9.3 Case Study Presentation 319
9.3.1 Problem Statement and Simulation 319
9.3.2 Analysis of TO Results 324
9.4 Critical Analysis and Conclusions 327
References 327
10 Development of a Constitutive Model to Predict the Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of 3D-Printed Thermoplastics: A Meshless Formulation 328
10.1 Introduction 329
10.2 The RPIM—Radial Point Interpolation Method 330
10.2.1 Meshless Generic Procedure 331
10.2.2 RPI Shape Functions 331
10.2.3 Meshless System of Equations for Linear Static Problems 333
10.3 Elasto-Plastic Formulation 334
10.3.1 Modified Hill Yield Criterion 335
10.3.2 Constitutive Model 336
10.4 Numerical Examples 338
10.4.1 Uniaxial Tensile and Compression Tests 338
10.4.2 Benchmark: Cantilever Beam Problem 341
10.4.3 Conclusions 343
References 345