Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

Ian Peate is Visiting Professor of Nursing, Visiting Senior Clinical Fellow, Editor-in-Chief of the British Journal of Nursing, and Head of School, School of Health Studies, Gibraltar.

Suzanne Evans is Associate Professor and Director of Teaching & Learning, School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia.

Contributors xvii

Preface xxi

Acknowledgements xxv

About the Editors xxvii

Prefixes, Suffixes xxix

How to Use Your Textbook xxxix

About the Companion Website xli

1 Basic Scientific Principles of Physiology 1

Introduction 2

Levels of Organisation 2

Characteristics of Life 2

Bodily Requirements 3

Life at the Chemical Level 4

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Bonds 6

Acids and Bases 10

Representing Chemical Reactions in Written Form: Chemical Equations 11

Organic Molecules 12

Homeostasis 15

Units of Measurement 16

Conclusion 18

Glossary 18

References 19

Activities 19

Test Your Learning 21

Find Out More 21

2 Cells, Cellular Compartments, Transport Systems, Fluid Movement Between Compartments 23

Introduction 24

Inside the Cell 24

Structure of the Cell Membrane 25

Transport of Substances Across the Cell Membrane 26

How Do Cells Communicate? 30

Fluid Compartments in the Body 31

The Composition of Body Fluids 31

Electrolyte and Water Balance 32

Fluid Movement Between Compartments 34

Bulk Transport Across the Cell Membrane 37

Conclusion 39

Glossary 39

References 40

Further Reading 40

Activities 40

Find Out More 42

Chemical Symbols 42

Conditions 43

3 Genetics 45

Anatomical Map 46

Introduction 46

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 47

The DNA Double Helix 48

Chromosomes 49

From DNA to Proteins 52

Summary of Relationship Between DNA, RNA and Protein 55

The Transference of Genes 56

Inheritance 60

Spontaneous Mutation 70

Disorders of Chromosomes 70

Conclusion 72

Glossary 72

References 73

Further Reading 74

Activities 74

Conditions 76

4 Tissue 77

Introduction 78

Epithelial Tissue 78

Connective Tissue 83

Membranes 89

Muscle Tissue 90

Nervous Tissue 91

Tissue Repair 92

Conclusion 93

Glossary 93

References 94

Activities 94

5 Embryology 97

Introduction 98

Final Maturation of the Oocyte and Sperm 98

Day One: Fertilisation 100

Days 2-5: Pre-Implantation Development 100

Day 6: Implantation 102

Week 2: Early Placental Formation 102

Week 3-8: Post-Implantation Embryonic Development 104

Late Gestation and Birth: Gestational Weeks 13-40 (Embryonic Weeks 11-38) 108

Complications of Pregnancy 111

Conclusion 115

Glossary 115

References 116

Further Reading 116

Activities 117

6 The Muscular System 119

Body Map 120

Introduction 120

Types of Muscle Tissue 120

Functions of the Muscular System 121

Composition of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 122

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles 122

Microanatomy of Skeletal Muscle Fibre 123

Skeletal Muscle Contraction and Relaxation 127

Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction 130

Aerobic Respiration 130

Organisation of the Skeletal Muscular System 133

The Effects of Ageing 146

Conclusion 146

Glossary 146

References 147

Further Reading 147

Activities 147

Find Out More 149

Conditions 149

7 The Skeletal System 151

Body Map 152

Introduction 152

Bone as a Tissue 154

Other Connective Tissues Closely Associated with the Skeletal System 156

Bone Formation 158

Bone Growth 159

Bone Remodelling 161

Bone Fractures 164

The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton 165

Bone Shapes 166

Joints 170

Conclusion 174

Glossary 175

References 176

Further Reading 176

Activities 177

Match Each Bone to its Correct Shape 178

Find Out More 179

Conditions 179

8 The Circulatory System 181

Body Map 182

Introduction 182

Components of Blood 182

Properties of Blood 184

Plasma 184

Functions of Blood 184

Formation of Blood Cells 186

Red Blood Cells 187

White Blood Cells 191

Platelets 194

Haemostasis 194

Coagulation 194

Blood Groups 197

Blood Vessels 198

Blood Pressure 202

Lymphatic System 203

Lymphatic Organs 207

Conclusion 209

Glossary 209

References 210

Further Reading 210

Activities 211

Find Out More 212

Conditions 212

9 The Cardiac System 215

Body Map 216

Introduction 216

Size and Location of the Heart 216

The Structures of the Heart 217

The Blood Supply to the Heart 223

Blood Flow Through the Heart 228

The Electrical Pathways of the Heart 229

The Cardiac Cycle 233

Factors Affecting Cardiac Output 236

Regulation of Stroke Volume 236

Regulation of Heart Rate 237

Conclusion 239

Glossary 239

References 241

Further Reading 242

Activities 242

Conditions 243

10 The Digestive System 245

Body Map 246

Introduction 246

The Activity of the Digestive System 246

The Organisation of the Digestive System 246

The Digestive System Organs 247

The Structure of the Digestive System 254

The Liver and Production of Bile 264

The Gallbladder 266

The Large Intestine 266

Digestive Tract Hormones 268

Nutrition, Chemical Digestion and Metabolism 268

Conclusion 272

Glossary 273

References 275

Further Reading 276

Activities 276

Find Out More 278

Test Your Learning 278

Conditions 278

11 The Renal System 281

Body Map 282

Introduction 282

Renal System 282

Functions of the Kidney 290

Blood Supply of the Kidney 292

Urine Formation 292

Selective Reabsorption 293

Hormonal Control of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 295

Composition of Urine 296

Ureters 298

Urinary Bladder 299

Urethra 300

Micturition 301

Conclusion 302

Glossary 302

References 303

Further Reading 303

Activities 304

Conditions 305

12 The Respiratory System 307

Body Map 308

Introduction 308

Organisation of the Respiratory System 308

The Upper Respiratory Tract 308

The Lower Respiratory Tract 310

Blood Supply 316

Respiration 316

Pulmonary Ventilation 316

Work of Breathing 319

Volumes and Capacities 321

Control of Breathing 323

External Respiration 324

Ventilation and Perfusion 327

Transport of Gases 327

Acid-Base Balance 330

Internal Respiration 330

Conclusion 332

Glossary 332

References 334

Further Reading 335

Activities 335

Conditions 337

13 The Reproductive Systems 339

Body Map 340

Introduction 340

The Male Reproductive System 340

The Female Reproductive System 348

Conclusion 361

Glossary 361

References 363

Further Reading 363

Activities 364

Find Out More 365

Conditions 366

14 The Nervous System 367

Body Map 368

Introduction 368

Organisation of the Nervous System 368

Sensory Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 368

Central Nervous System 369

Motor Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 369

Neurotransmitters 374

Neuroglia 376

The Meninges 376

Cerebrospinal Fluid 377

The Brain 379

The Peripheral Nervous System 383

The Autonomic Nervous System 389

Conclusion 392

Glossary 393

References 394

Further Reading 394

Activities 395

Find Out More 396

Conditions 396

15 The Senses 399

Introduction 400

The Chemical Senses 400

The Senses of Equilibrium and Hearing 408

The Sense of Sight 419

Conclusion 428

Glossary 428

References 430

Further Reading 430

Activities 430

Conditions 432

16 The Endocrine System 433

Body Map 434

Introduction 434

The Endocrine Organs 435

Hormones 437

The Physiology of the Endocrine Organs 439

The Thyroid Gland 443

Glossary 456

References 457

Further Reading 458

Activities 458

Conditions 460

17 The Immune System 461

Body Map 462

Introduction 462

Blood Cell Development 462

Organs of the Immune System 463

The Lymphatic System 464

Lymphoid Tissue 469

Types of Immunity 469

The Innate Immune System 469

Blood Cells 470

The Acquired Immune System 477

Immunoglobulins (Antibodies) 480

Natural Killer Cells 484

Primary and Secondary Response to Infection 485

Hypersensitivity 487

Anaphylaxis 488

Immunisations 488

Conclusion 488

Glossary 489

References 490

Further Reading 491

Activities 491

Find Out More 493

Conditions 493

18 The Skin 495

Body Map 496

Introduction 496

The Structure of Skin 497

The Epidermis 498

Layers of the Epidermis 499

The Dermis 503

The Papillary and Reticular Aspects 503

The Accessory Skin Structures 504

The Functions of the Skin 508

Synthesis of Vitamin D 511

Conclusion 511

Glossary 511

References 512

Further Reading 513

Activities 513

Find Out More 515

Conditions 515

Normal Values 517

Answers 521

Index 529