Graphene Functionalization Strategies (eBook)

Preface 7
Acknowledgments 9
Contents 10
About the Editors 12
1 Synthesis of Metal/Metal Oxide Supported Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) for the Applications of Electrocatalysis and Supercapacitors 15
Abstract 15
1 Introduction 16
1.1 Comparison of Energy Storage and Conversion Devices (Electrochemical Supercapacitors, Battery, and Fuel Cells) 17
2 Synthesis of RGO and RGO-Based Metal-Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 19
2.1 Synthesis of Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) 19
2.2 Synthesis and Architecture of NPs-RGO Nanocomposites 22
2.3 Synthesis of Metal/Metal Oxide NPs on Reduced Graphene Oxide 23
2.3.1 In Situ Method 24
Wet-Chemical Method 24
Microwave-Irradiation (MWI) Method 25
Hydrothermal Method 26
Sonochemical Method 27
Electrochemical Deposition Method 29
3 Application of RGO-Based Metal/Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 29
3.1 Electrocatalyst 30
3.1.1 Anodic Oxidation Reaction (AOR) 31
AOR by RGO Supported Metal-Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 31
AOR by RGO Supported Noble Metal Nanocomposites 34
3.1.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 36
3.2 Supercapacitor 38
3.2.1 Energy Storage Mechanism 39
Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 39
Pseudocapacitor 40
3.2.2 Electrolyte 41
Aqueous Electrolyte 42
Organic Electrolyte 42
Gel Electrolyte or Polymer Electrolyte 43
3.2.3 Metal Oxide on RGO for Supercapacitors Applications 43
Bi2O3 on Reduced Graphene Oxide 44
Co3O4 on Reduced Graphene Oxide 46
MnO2 on Reduced Graphene Oxide 49
MoO3 on Reduced Graphene Oxide 51
4 Conclusion and Perspectives 53
References 54
2 Functionalized Graphene-Metal Nanoparticles Nanohybrids as Electrochemical Sensors 63
Abstract 63
1 Introduction 64
1.1 Covalent Modifications of GR/GO 66
1.2 Noncovalent Modifications of GR/GO 66
2 Functionalized Graphene-Metal Nanohybrids as Electrochemical Sensors 68
3 Conclusion 72
References 74
3 Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis, Exfoliation and Functionalisation of Graphene Derivatives 77
Abstract 77
1 Introduction 78
1.1 Ultrasound Energy and Sonochemical Synthesis 78
1.1.1 Definition of Ultrasound 78
1.1.2 Consequences of Acoustic Cavitations 80
1.1.3 Brief History of Cavitation and Sonochemistry 83
1.1.4 Common Ultrasound Energy Generating Devices 84
1.1.5 Sonochemical Synthesis—Uniqueness 84
2 Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Graphene and Its Derivatives 86
2.1 Unique Features of Graphene and Its Derivatives 86
2.2 Why Sonochemical Synthesis of Graphene? 88
2.3 Controlling Parameters for Sonochemical Synthesis of Graphene Materials 90
2.4 Large Scale Production of Graphene and Its Derivatives Applying Sonochemistry 91
3 Graphene Exfoliation via Ultrasound Assisted Intercalation Process 92
4 Ultrasound-Assisted Exfoliation and Dispersion of Graphene Composites 96
4.1 Metal Nanoparticles Decorated Functionalized Graphenes 96
4.2 Metal Oxide Based Functionalized Graphene- Nanocomposites 98
4.3 Polymer Based Functionalized Graphene- Nanocomposites 100
4.4 Other Graphene/Nano-Carbon Based Derivatives 102
5 Sonochemically Synthesized Graphene Ternary Composites 103
6 Toxicity Issues 104
7 Conclusion and Upcoming Perspectives 105
Acknowledgements 106
References 107
4 Sonochemically Covalent Functionalized Graphene Oxide Towards Photoluminescence and Nanocytotoxicity Activities 118
Abstract 118
1 Introduction 119
2 Experimental Section 120
2.1 Materials 120
2.2 Synthesis of GrO 120
2.3 Synthesis of f-(ATDZ)GrO 121
2.4 Nanocytotoxicity Evaluation 122
2.5 Characterization Techniques 122
3 Results and Discussion 123
3.1 Structural Investigation 123
3.2 Photoluminescence Activity of f-(ATDZ)GrO 132
3.3 Cytotoxicity Behavior 133
3.4 Contribution of Hetero Atomic Domains (CAD) 135
4 Conclusions 135
Acknowledgements 136
References 136
5 Functionalized Graphene/Polymer Nanofiber Composites and Their Functional Applications 140
Abstract 140
1 Introduction 141
2 Chemical Functionalization of Graphene 142
2.1 Non-covalent Functionalization 144
2.2 Covalent Functionalization 145
3 Preparation of Functionalized Graphene Based Polymer 149
3.1 Nanofiber Composites 149
4 Principle of Electrospinning 152
5 Properties of Functionalized Graphene Based Polymer 157
5.1 Nanofibers Composite 157
6 Application of Functionalized Graphene-Based Polymer 160
6.1 Nanofiber Composites 160
7 Conclusions and Future Scope 164
Acknowledgements 164
References 165
6 Graphene Functionalization and Nanopolymers 170
Abstract 170
1 Introduction 170
2 Synthesis 172
2.1 Synthesis of Graphene Oxide 172
2.2 Synthesis of Reduced Graphene Oxide 172
2.2.1 Chemical Reduction 173
2.2.2 Thermal Reduction 173
2.2.3 Electrochemical Reduction 174
2.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Reduction 174
3 Characterization of Functionalized Graphene: GO and RGO 175
4 Functionalization of Graphene for Electroanalytical Applications 179
4.1 Functionalized Graphene for Enzymatic Biosensors 179
4.2 Functionalized Graphene for Immunosensors Construction 181
4.3 Functionalized Graphene Using Nanopolymers 183
5 Functionalized Graphene with Metallic Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensors 185
6 Conclusion 186
Acknowledgements 186
References 186
7 Electrochemical Detection of Dopamine in the Presence of Uric Acid Using Graphene Oxide Modified Electrode as Highly Sensitive and Selective Sensors 192
Abstract 192
1 Introduction 192
2 Experimental Sections 195
2.1 Material and Method 195
2.2 Synthesis of Graphene Oxide 196
3 Results and Discussion 196
3.1 Characterization of Graphene Oxide 196
3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Spectra of Prepared Material 196
3.3 SEM Analysis of Prepared Materials 197
3.4 Raman Analysis of Prepared Materials 197
3.5 XRD Analysis of Prepared Materials 199
3.6 Electrochemical Activity of the Fabricated GO/GCE 199
4 Conclusions 200
References 201
8 Cyclodextrin Functionalized Graphene and Its Applications 206
Abstract 206
1 Introduction 206
2 Functionalization of Graphene and Its Derivatives by CD 207
3 Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Graphene for Drug Delivery 210
4 Cyclodextrin Functionalized Graphene for Chiral Recognition 211
5 Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Graphene for Electrochemical Detection 213
5.1 Drug Molecule Detection 213
5.2 Biomolecule Detection 215
5.3 Pollutant Detection 216
6 Other Applications 220
6.1 Pollutant Removal 220
6.2 Stationary Phase 220
6.3 Methanol Oxidation 220
7 Conclusion 221
References 221
9 Simulation Paths of Anticancer Drugs on a Graphene Oxide Surface 227
Abstract 227
Acknowledgements 239
References 239
10 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Hydrogen Storage 241
Abstract 241
1 Introduction 241
2 Gas Adsorption and Storage 243
3 Electrochemical Storage of Hydrogen 245
3.1 Storage of Hydrogen in the Form of Molecular Hydrogen 245
3.2 Hydrogen Storage in 3D Graphene-Based Materials (GBMs) 248
4 Conclusions 249
References 249
11 Functionalized Graphene for Drug Delivery Applications 258
Abstract 258
1 Introduction 259
2 Structure 259
3 Synthesis 260
4 Functionalization 261
4.1 Covalent Modification 262
4.2 Non-covalent Modification 263
4.3 Covalent Functionalization with Reaction Intermediates 264
4.4 Functionalization with Nanoparticles 264
4.5 Substitutional Doping 264
4.6 Multi Functionalization 265
5 Properties of Functionalized Graphene 265
6 Characterization of Functionalized Graphene 266
7 Applications 267
7.1 Functionalized Graphene in Drug Delivery 267
7.2 Multi Functionalized Graphene in Drug Delivery 274
7.3 Functionalized Graphene a Vector for Gene Delivery
7.4 Dual Gene/Drug Delivery by Graphene Nanocarriers 277
7.5 Anticancer Activity of Functionalized Graphene 277
7.6 Antibacterial Activity of Functionalized Graphene 278
7.7 Other Applications 279
8 Conclusion 282
References 282
12 Microwave-Assisted Modification of Graphene and Its Derivatives: Synthesis, Reduction and Exfoliation 290
Abstract 290
1 Introduction 291
2 Microwave Heating 292
2.1 Microwave for Materials Processing 292
2.2 Microwave for Ceramic Processing 294
2.3 Microwave for Polymer Processing 295
3 Fundamentals of Microwave-Carbon Interactions 296
3.1 Microwave-Assisted Formation of Graphene Derivatives 297
3.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis: Uniform Formation of Graphene Derivatives 298
4 Microwave-Assisted Modification of Graphene Derivatives 303
4.1 Microwave-Assisted Exfoliation: Highly Porous Structure of Graphene Derivatives 303
4.2 Microwave-Assisted Reduction: Easily Removal of Oxygen Containing Functional Group from Graphene Derivatives Surfaces 304
5 Quality and Functionality of Graphene Derivatives 305
6 Modification of Graphene Derivatives with Metal/Metal Oxide and Semiconducting Oxide for Formation of Hybrids/Composites 306
6.1 GO/rGO-Co3O4 Composite 306
6.2 GO/rGO-NiO Composites 307
6.3 GO/rGO-CuO Composites 307
6.4 GO/rGO-Pd Composites 309
6.5 GO/rGO-Pt Composites 309
6.6 GO/rGO-Ag Composites 310
6.7 GO/rGO-TiO2 Composites 310
6.8 GO/rGO-ZnO Composites 311
6.9 GO/rGO-MoS2 Composites 313
7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 314
References 315
13 Graphene Functionalizations on Copper by Spectroscopic Techniques 323
Abstract 323
1 Introduction 323
2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Graphene 324
3 Chemical Functionalization of Graphene 325
3.1 Covalent Modification 326
3.2 Non-covalent Functionalization 326
3.3 Stabilization in an Ionic Medium 327
3.4 Direct Synthesis from Graphite 327
4 Graphene Functionalizations on Copper 328
4.1 Spectroscopic Techniques 329
4.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy 329
4.1.2 Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) 330
4.1.3 Mass Spectrometry (MS) 330
4.1.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 330
4.1.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy 331
4.1.6 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 332
4.1.7 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 333
5 Conclusions 334
References 334
14 Chemically Functionalized Penta-Graphene for Electronic Device Applications: Journey from Theoretical Prediction to Practical Implementation 344
Abstract 344
1 Introduction 345
2 Structure and Properties of PG 347
2.1 Stability Issues 348
2.2 Properties of Pristine PG 349
3 Hydrogen Functionalization of Penta-Graphene 354
3.1 Stability Issues 355
3.2 Properties of Hydrogenated Penta-Graphene 356
4 Fluorine Functionalization of Penta-Graphene 360
4.1 Stability Issues 361
4.2 Properties of Fluorinated Penta-Graphene 363
5 Oxygen Functionalization 363
5.1 Properties of Oxygenated Penta-Graphene 364
6 Challenges in Implementation and Future Direction of Research 366
7 Conclusion 367
References 368
15 3D Graphene and Its Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Multifunctional Applications 371
Abstract 371
1 Introduction 371
2 The Fabrication Strategy of 3D Graphene 372
2.1 Chemical Self-assembly Method 373
2.2 Template Assisted Chemical Method 375
2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method 375
3 3D Graphene for Fuel Cells 378
4 3D Graphene for Lithium-Ion Battery 381
5 Conclusions and Future Outlook 386
Acknowledgements 387
References 387
16 Enhanced Electrocatalytic Activity and Durability of PtRu Nanoparticles Decorated on rGO Material for Ethanol Oxidation Reaction 397
Abstract 397
1 Introduction 398
2 Materials and Methods 399
2.1 The Synthesis of Pt@rGO and PtRu@rGO NPs 399
3 Results and Discussion 399
4 Conclusions 403
References 403