Evaporation of Water With Emphasis on Applications and Measurements

INTRODUCTION. TRANSPORT OF WATER ACROSS THE INTERFACIAL REGION. Kinetic Theory of Gases. Evaporation and Condensation of Water. Principle of Detailed Balancing. Absolute Reaction Rates. Concept of Diffusional Resistance. Heat and Mass Transfer. Solution of the Prandtl Boundary-Layer Equations. Solution of the Prandtl Boundary-Layer Equations. Flow in a Fully Developed Turbulent Boundary Layer. Evaporation by Spurts. Evaporation of Water in Electric Fields. Preparation of Pure Water. EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION COEFFICIENTS. Reflection of Water Vapor Molecules at an Evaporating Surface. Calculation of Mass Flux. Is the Evaporation Coefficient Unity? Experimental Determinations of Evaporation and Condensation Coefficients. Hertz-Knudsen Equation. Maximum Evaporation Rate for Water. EVAPORATION FROM WATER DROPS. Kinetics of Evaporation of Droplets. Evaporation from Freely Falling Water Drops. Effects of Insoluble Films. Charged Water Drops. Vertical Tunnel Studies. Evaporation Losses from Sprinkler Irrigation Systems. SURFACE TENSION, CONVECTION, AND INTERFACIAL WAVES. Surface Tension. Convection. Wind Generated Waves. SURFACE TEMPERATURE, TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SURFACE AND BULK, TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS, AND HUMIDITY GRADIENTS ABOVE A WATER SURFACE. Measurement of Surface Temperature. Temperature Difference between Water Surface and Bulk. Temperature Gradients. Temperature of Water in Film-Treated Reservoirs. Water Vapor Distribution above a Water Surface. WIND TUNNEL INVESTIGATIONS OF EVAPORATION. Similarity. Wind Tunnel Experimentation. MONOMOLECULAR FILMS. I Reduction of Evaporation Rate by Monomolecular Films. Steps in the Evaporation Process. Changes in the Gaseous Diffusion Layer. Changes in Heat Flux and Near-Surface Temperature Structure. Alteration of Surface Temperature. Heat and Mass Transfer. Increase in Temperature of Water in a Reservoir. Resistances to Evaporation. Evaporation Rates of Film-Coated Water Drops. Stabilization of Water Fogs. Inhibition of Evaporation from Agar Gel. Effects of Monolayers on Rate of Evaporation of Water and on Solution of Oxygen in Water. Effects of Traces of Permeable Substances. Reduction of Evaporation from Lakes and Reservoirs. EQUATIONS USED TO CALCULATE EVAPORATION RATE AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION. Bulk Aerodynamic Equation. The Penman Equation. Evapotranspiration Determination by the Bowen Ratio Method. Comparison of Equations. Eddy Correlation. Evaporation from a Rough Surface. EVAPORATION PANS. Heat Balance of the Class-A Evaporation Pan. Simultaneous Recording of Pan Evaporation and Rainfall. Differences in Evaporation Pan Data. Evaporation from Nonmarine Brines. Effect of Salinity and Ionic Composition on Evaporation. Pan-Evaporation Data as a Practical Tool for Estimating Potential Evapotranspiration. LYSIMETRY. Lysimetry and Evapotranspiration. Hydraulic Lysimeters. Large Weighing Monolithic Lysimeters. Accuracy of Lysimeters. Evaporation Rate and Lysimeters. Direct Evaluation of Soil Water Flux after Irrigation. Use of Lysimeter to Schedule Irrigation Automatically. EVAPORATION REDUCTION BY VARIOUS MEANS. Effect of Reflection of Solar Energy on Evaporation of Water. Reduction of Evaporation from Water Surfaces by the Use of Reflective Surfaces. Evaporation Reduction by Reduction of Available Solar Energy. Reduction of Evaporation by the Use of Floating Covers. Evaporation Reduction in Stock Tanks. Shading the Waters Surface. Floating Covers. Reduction of Evaporation by Floating Rubber or Sponge Tank Covers. Effects of Lily Pads on Evaporation.