Handbook on Advances in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 7
About the Authors 12
Acronyms 14
1 Innovations in Remote Sensing of Forests 19
Abstract 19
1.1 Introduction 19
1.2 Chapters Including in the Book 21
1.3 Conclusions 30
References 30
Airborne LiDAR and Optical Measurements of Forest 34
2 Overview of LiDAR Technologies and Equipment for Land Cover Scanning 35
Abstract 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Development of LiDAR Technology 37
2.3 Overview of Airborne Laser Scanning 40
2.3.1 Physical Principles of Airborne Laser Scanning 40
2.3.2 Errors of LiDAR Systems 44
2.3.3 Conventional LiDAR Calibration Methods 46
2.3.4 Alternative LiDAR Calibration Methods 48
2.3.5 Equipment for Airborne Laser Scanning 49
2.4 Overview of UAV Laser Scanning 58
2.4.1 Particular Qualities of UAV Laser Scanning 58
2.4.2 Equipment for UAV Laser Scanning 59
2.5 Overview of Terrestrial Laser Scanning 63
2.5.1 Particular Qualities of Terrestrial Laser Scanning 63
2.5.2 Equipment for Terrestrial Laser Scanning 64
2.5.3 Particular Qualities of Mobile Laser Scanning 71
2.5.4 Equipment for Mobile Laser Scanning 71
2.6 Comparison of Remote Sensing Techniques for Forest Inventory 77
2.7 Conclusions 78
References 79
3 Software Tools for Terrain and Forest Modelling 85
Abstract 85
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 Survey of Software Tools for Terrain Modelling 86
3.2.1 Software Tool “Terrasolid” 86
3.2.2 Cloud Platform “ArcGIS” 92
3.2.3 Software Tool “Bionatics” 96
3.2.4 Software Tool “Terragen” 99
3.2.5 Software Tool “3DNature” 100
3.2.6 Software Tool “GRASS” 101
3.2.7 Software Tool “Object Raku Technology” 105
3.3 Survey of Software Tools for Vegetation Modelling 106
3.3.1 Software Tool “Xfog” 106
3.3.2 Software Tool “SpeedTree” 108
3.3.3 Software Tool “Onyx Computing” 110
3.3.4 Software Tool “Marlin Studios” 115
3.3.5 Software Tool “E-on Software” 115
3.3.6 Additional Software Tools 117
3.4 Conclusions 124
References 124
4 Data Fusion for Evaluation of Woodland Parameters 126
Abstract 126
4.1 Introduction 126
4.2 Related Work 128
4.3 Generalized Flowchart for Data Fusion of Airborne Laser Scanning, Imaging Spectroscopy, and Imaging Photography 135
4.4 Representation of Airborne LiDAR and Digital Photography Data 138
4.5 Method for Crown and Trunk Measurements 141
4.5.1 Shearlet Transform 143
4.5.2 Generic, Higher Order, and Probabilistic Active Contour Models 144
4.5.3 Crown Measurements 146
4.6 Experimental Results 147
4.7 Conclusions 148
References 148
Individual Tree Modelling 153
5 Tree Modelling in Virtual Reality Environment 154
Abstract 154
5.1 Introduction 154
5.2 Related Work 155
5.3 Fundamentals of L-Systems 164
5.3.1 Overview of L-Systems 165
5.3.2 Overview of Parametric L-Systems 167
5.3.3 Skeleton Tree-like Structures Based on L-Systems 171
5.4 Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs 173
5.4.1 Procedural Broad-Leaved Trees Modelling Based on L-Systems 175
5.4.2 Realistic Image-Based Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees 177
5.5 Procedural Modelling of Coniferous Trees 180
5.6 Modelling Results 182
5.7 Conclusions 189
References 189
6 Realistic Tree Modelling 193
Abstract 193
6.1 Introduction 193
6.2 Related Work 194
6.3 Voxel Modelling of Vegetation 196
6.3.1 Voxelization 196
6.3.2 2D Analysis in Horizontal Cuts 197
6.3.3 3D Reconstruction 198
6.4 Improvement of Tree Models by Realistic Data 198
6.4.1 Space Colonization Algorithm 199
6.4.2 Graph-Based Modelling 203
6.4.3 Self-organizing Tree Modelling 204
6.4.4 Inverse Procedural Modelling 206
6.5 Experimental Results 209
6.6 Conclusions 212
References 213
Landscape Scene Modelling 215
7 Digital Modelling of Terrain Surface 216
Abstract 216
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Related Work 218
7.3 Densification of LiDAR Point Cloud 221
7.3.1 Densification Approaches 221
7.3.2 Measurement Errors 222
7.4 Filtering of LiDAR Points 224
7.4.1 Surface-Based Filtering 224
7.4.2 Slope-Based Filtering 228
7.4.3 Morphology-Based Filtering 230
7.4.4 Segmentation-Based Filtering 232
7.4.5 Hybrid Methods 236
7.4.6 Comparison of Filtering Methods 238
7.5 Generation of Digital Terrain Model 240
7.5.1 Spatial Relationship Methods 240
7.5.2 Statistical Methods 245
7.5.3 Curve-Fitting Methods 250
7.5.4 Surfaces’ Interpolation in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst 251
7.5.5 Accuracy Estimators 252
7.6 Experimental Results 254
7.7 Conclusions 257
References 257
8 Texturing of Landscape Scenes 262
Abstract 262
8.1 Introduction 262
8.2 Related Work 264
8.2.1 Visualization Techniques for Digital Earth Surface Model 264
8.2.2 Visualization Techniques for Tree and Plant Models 267
8.3 Fundamentals of Texture Mapping 268
8.4 Multi-resolution Texturing for Digital Earth Surface Model 272
8.4.1 Basic Techniques 273
8.4.2 Extended Techniques 274
8.5 Multi-resolution Texturing for Vegetation Models 277
8.6 Experimental Results 283
8.7 Conclusions 287
References 288
9 Large Scene Rendering 291
Abstract 291
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 Related Work 292
9.2.1 Overview of Terrain Rendering Techniques 292
9.2.2 Overview of Object Rendering Techniques 294
9.2.3 Overview of Realistic Lighting 297
9.3 Large Landscape Scene Rendering 300
9.4 Large Terrain Rendering 301
9.5 Vegetation Rendering 309
9.6 Realistic Lighting 313
9.7 Shaders 316
9.8 Conclusions 327
References 327
10 Scene Rendering Under Meteorological Impacts 331
Abstract 331
10.1 Introduction 331
10.2 Related Work 332
10.2.1 Overview of Wind Rendering 332
10.2.2 Overview of Fog Rendering 334
10.2.3 Overview of Rain Rendering 335
10.2.4 Overview of Snow Rendering 336
10.3 Wind Rendering 338
10.4 Fog Simulation 344
10.5 Rain Simulation 350
10.6 Snow Covering Simulation 356
10.7 Natural Objects’ Rendering 360
10.7.1 Rendering of the Water Surfaces 361
10.7.2 Rendering of Clouds 364
10.8 Experimental Results 366
10.9 Conclusions 369
References 370
Forest Ecosystem Modelling 375
11 Lighting and Shadows Rendering in Natural Scenes 376
Abstract 376
11.1 Introduction 376
11.2 Related Work 377
11.3 Background of Lighting 380
11.3.1 Lighting 380
11.3.2 Material Properties 390
11.3.3 Volume Rendering 393
11.4 Simulation of Lighting in Modelling Scene 394
11.4.1 Trees Lighting 395
11.4.2 Foliage Lighting 397
11.5 Simulation of Lighting Changes in Modelling Scene 399
11.6 Implementation 401
11.7 Conclusions 402
References 402
12 Modelling of Forest Ecosystems 406
Abstract 406
12.1 Introduction 406
12.2 Related Work 409
12.3 Forest Scene Modelling 411
12.4 Forest Ecosystems 413
12.5 Modelling of Living Conditions 414
12.5.1 Soil’s Moisture and Minerals 415
12.5.2 Wind 416
12.5.3 Temperature 417
12.5.4 Solar Radiation 417
12.5.5 Forest Fire Risk Evaluation 419
12.6 Conclusions 421
References 421