Polymers against Microorganisms (eBook)

Dr. Juan Rodriguez-Hernandez is a tenured researcher at the Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP-CSIC). From 2005, his research activity has been centered around the preparation of surfaces in which both the functionality and the nano-structuration can be controlled. His research group works on the rational of controlled functionalization and hierarchically structuration of polymer surfaces with different properties having interest in catalysis, friction or as antimicrobial interfaces.

Preface 5
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
Chapter 1: Polymers Against Microorganisms 13
1.1 Infectious Diseases: Historical Context 13
1.1.1 Mechanisms of Resistance to Antibacterial Agents 18
1.2 Implant-Associated Infections 19
1.3 The Use of Macromolecules as Antimicrobials 20
1.4 About This Book 21
References 22
Chapter 2: Bacterial Infections: Few Concepts 24
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Bacterial Structure 25
2.3 Interactions Mechanisms of Antimicrobials with Bacteria in Solution 26
2.3.1 Bacterial Targets of Antibiotics 26
2.3.2 Antibiotic Resistance Developed by Bacteria 27
2.3.2.1 Mechanism 1: Pump Out the Antibiotic 28
2.3.2.2 Mechanism 2: Reduce the Permeability of the Cell Membrane 28
2.3.2.3 Mechanism 3: Modification of the Antibiotic Structure 28
2.3.2.4 Mechanism 4: Changing the Target Structure 29
2.3.3 Macromolecular Antimicrobials 29
2.4 Biomaterials Surface: Device-Associated Infections 33
2.4.1 Adhesion, Adherence, and Attachment 34
2.4.2 Bacterial Adhesion to Biomaterials Surfaces 34
2.4.2.1 Phase One in Bacterial Adhesion 35
2.4.2.2 Phase Two in Bacterial Adhesion 35
2.4.3 Biofilm Formation 37
2.4.4 Antibiotic Resistance of Bacteria in Biofilms 39
2.4.5 Approaches Developed to Achieve Polymeric Biomaterials with Antibacterial Properties 41
2.4.5.1 Bacteria Repelling and Antiadhesive Surfaces 41
2.4.5.2 Bioactive Materials with Intrinsically Antibacterial Properties 41
2.4.5.3 Materials Incorporating Bioactive Molecules Interfering with the Production of Bacterial Biofilm 42
2.5 Conclusions 42
References 43
Chapter 3: Chemical Approaches to Prepare Antimicrobial Polymers 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Types of Antimicrobial Groups Incorporated in Polymers 50
3.2.1 Quaternary Ammonium/Phosphonium 51
3.2.2 N-Halamine and Other Halogen Containing Polymers 53
3.2.3 Antimicrobial Peptides and Other Polymers Mimicking Natural Peptides 54
3.2.4 Other Antimicrobial Functional Groups 57
3.3 Synthetic Strategies to Prepare Antimicrobial Polymers 58
3.4 Interactions Between Bacteria and Polymeric Materials: Role of the Macromolecular Parameters on the Antibacterial Activity 59
3.4.1 Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Balance 59
3.4.2 Molecular Weight 61
3.4.3 Polymer Topology 62
3.4.3.1 Homopolymers/Copolymers/Telechelic Polymers 63
3.4.3.2 Block Copolymers Versus Random Copolymers 63
3.4.3.3 Dendrimers and Brush Polymers 64
3.4.4 Monomer Derivatization with Alkyl Chains: Spacer Length and Alkyl Chain Effect 67
3.4.5 Other Macromolecular Parameters Involved in the Antibacterial Activity 67
3.5 Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Activity: In Vitro Testing 69
3.6 Conclusions 71
References 73
Chapter 4: Nano-Micro Polymeric Structures with Antimicrobial Activity in Solution 80
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 Amphiphilic Antimicrobial Structures in Solution: Key Variables to Take into Account 81
4.3 Antimicrobial Random/Alternated Copolymers in Solution 82
4.4 Self-Assembled Block Copolymer-Based Antimicrobial Nanostructures 85
4.5 Hybrid Organic/Inorganic Nano-Assemblies in Solution 88
4.6 Polymeric Nanocapsules 91
4.7 Polymeric Nanoparticles 91
4.8 Core/Shell Nanoparticles 93
4.9 Fabrication of Microspheres for Antibacterial Purposes 94
4.10 Responsive Nanoparticles/Assemblies 96
4.11 Conclusions 99
References 100
Chapter 5: Antimicrobial/Antifouling Surfaces Obtained by Surface Modification 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Polymer Surface Modification 105
5.3 Techniques to Functionalize Polymer Surfaces 106
5.4 Anti-Adhesive Polymer Surfaces: Antifouling 108
5.5 Antibacterial Coatings 110
5.5.1 Biocide-Releasing Antibacterial Coatings 110
5.5.2 Intrinsically Bioactive Materials: Contact-Active Biocidals 110
5.6 Dual-Function Antibacterial Surfaces for Biomedical Applications 115
5.6.1 Repelling and Releasing Surfaces 115
5.6.2 Contact-Killing and Repelling 115
5.6.3 Releasing and Contact-Killing 117
5.7 Responsive Antibacterial Surfaces 117
5.7.1 Thermoresponsive Surfaces 119
5.7.2 pH-Responsive Surfaces 120
5.7.3 Bioresponsive Surfaces 120
5.7.4 Other Responsive Interfaces 122
5.8 Conclusions 123
References 124
Chapter 6: Nano/Microstructured Antibacterial Surfaces 132
6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Fabricating Micro- and Nanometer Size Patterns on Polymer Surfaces 134
6.2.1 Innovative Lithographic Techniques 134
6.2.2 Laser-Based Micro-Nanopatterning 135
6.2.3 Writing Using Electron and Ion Beams 135
6.2.4 Molding 136
6.2.5 Pattern Formation by Surface Instabilities 136
6.2.5.1 Spontaneous Structuration Driven by Surface/Interfacial Energy 138
6.2.5.2 Field-Induced and Dynamic Control of Surface Structuration 138
6.2.5.3 Influence of Water on Hydrophobic Polymer Surfaces 138
6.3 Micro/Nanostructured Antimicrobial Surfaces in Nature 138
6.3.1 Nanostructured Surfaces that Repel/Kill Bacteria in Nature 139
6.3.2 Hierarchically Structured Surfaces with Antifouling Properties 141
6.4 Engineering Bioinspired Surfaces with Either Micro- or Nanostructured Topographic Structures 141
6.4.1 Synthetic Structured Polymer Surfaces with Micrometer Size Patterns 142
6.4.2 Nanoscale Surface Patterns in Polymeric Materials as Antimicrobial Materials 142
6.5 Engineered Surfaces with Micro/Nanostructured Topographic Features and Chemically Controlled Surface 145
6.6 Nanostructured Composite Films 150
6.7 Nanostructured Responsive Surfaces 152
6.8 Conclusions 155
References 155
Chapter 7: Antimicrobial Fibers and Fabrics Obtained by Electro/Melt Spinning 162
7.1 Introduction 162
7.2 Approaches for Fiber Fabrication 163
7.2.1 Melt, Solution, and Emulsion Spinning 163
7.2.2 Electrospinning 164
7.2.3 Melt Blowing 165
7.3 Fibers Bearing Antimicrobial Molecules 165
7.4 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Nanofibers with Antimicrobial Properties 168
7.5 Antibacterial Fibers with Covalently Bonded Biocides 173
7.6 Fibers with Responsive Antimicrobial Activity 174
7.7 Biodegradable Fibers with Antimicrobial Properties 179
7.8 Conclusions 181
References 181
Chapter 8: Antimicrobial Hydrogels 185
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 Types of Hydrogels 186
8.3 Hydrogels as Supports of Antimicrobial Agents 187
8.3.1 Hydrogels Containing Antimicrobial Metal Nanoparticles 187
8.3.2 Hydrogels Loaded with Antibiotics 194
8.3.3 Hydrogels Loaded with Antimicrobial Agents 195
8.4 Hydrogels with Inherent Antimicrobial Properties 196
8.4.1 Antimicrobial Peptide-Based Hydrogels 197
8.4.2 Antimicrobial Hydrogels Prepared from Natural Polymers 198
8.5 Dual Antimicrobial/Antifouling Hydrogels 201
8.6 Responsive Hydrogels with Antimicrobial Properties 202
8.7 Conclusions 205
References 206
Chapter 9: Antibacterial Polymeric Membranes 211
9.1 Introduction to Polymer Membranes 211
9.2 Contamination of Polymeric Membranes 213
9.2.1 Membrane Biofouling 214
9.3 Strategies for the Modification of Polymeric Membranes 215
9.4 Types of Antifouling/Antimicrobial Polymers Employed in the Fabrication of Membranes 219
9.4.1 Membrane Surface Modification with Anti-Adhesive Polymers 219
9.4.2 Antimicrobial Biocides and Polymers Incorporated in Polymeric Membranes 224
9.5 Responsive Membranes 231
9.6 Conclusions 232
References 232
Chapter 10: Environmental and Safety Issues 237
10.1 Introduction 237
10.2 Using Small Biocides Released from the Polymer 238
10.3 Alternatives to Small Biocides: Nonleaching Polymer Materials 240
10.4 Safety Concerns Related to the Use of Different Antimicrobial Polymers: Cytotoxicity Against Mammalian Cells 243
10.4.1 General Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Toxicity 244
10.4.1.1 Unexpected Interactions Between Drugs 244
10.4.1.2 Direct Effects of the Drugs on Tissues and Organs 244
10.4.1.3 Drugs Producing Hypersensitivity 245
10.4.1.4 Changes in Microbial Flora Produced by Antimicrobials 245
10.4.1.5 Release of Toxic Products after Microbial Lysis 245
10.4.2 Cytotoxicity of Antimicrobial Polymers 246
10.4.3 Cytotoxicity of Hybrid Antibacterial Nanostructures 246
10.5 Environmental Friendly Non-Fouling Polymeric Materials 248
10.5.1 Strategies Approaches Based on the Modification of the Surface Chemistry 248
10.5.2 Fabrication of Nontoxic Antifouling Interfaces Based on the Surface Physical Properties 249
10.6 Particular Environmental and/or Safety Concerns Related to the Final Use and Conclusions 251
10.6.1 Particular Considerations in Polymeric Antimicrobial Packaging Systems 251
10.6.2 Modern Approaches to Environmentally Effective Marine Antifouling Coatings 252
10.7 Conclusions 254
References 254
Chapter 11: Applications and Current Status of Antimicrobial Polymers 260
11.1 Introduction 260
11.2 Main Areas of Application of Antimicrobial Polymers 261
11.2.1 Applications in the Fabrication of Medical and Healthcare Products 261
11.2.2 Antimicrobial Polymers in Food Packaging Applications 263
11.2.3 Textile Products 264
11.2.4 Water Treatment 266
11.2.5 Antimicrobial Paints 274
11.3 Gap Between Lab-Scale and Reality 275
11.4 Clinical Status of Antimicrobial Polymers 275
11.5 Conclusions 279
References 280