Handbook of Solar Energy (eBook)

Professor Gopal Nath Tiwari, received postgraduate and doctoral degrees in 1972 and 1976, respectively, from the Banaras Hindu University, India. Since 1977, he has been actively involved in the teaching program at Centre for Energy Studies, IIT Delhi. His research interests in the field of Solar Energy Applications are solar distillation, water/air heating system, greenhouse technology for agriculture and aquaculture, earth-to-air heat exchangers, passive building design, hybrid photovoltaic thermal (HPVT) systems, climate change, energy security, etc. He has guided about 75 PhD students and published over 550 research papers in journals of repute. He has authored twenty books associated with reputed publishers.He is a co-recipient of the 'Hariom Ashram Prerit S.S. Bhatnagar' Award in 1982. He had been to the University of Papua, New Guinea in 1987-1989 as an Energy and Environment Expert. He was also named European Fellow in 1997, and has been nominated for the IDEA award. He is responsible for development of "Solar Energy Park" at IIT Delhi and Energy Laboratory at University of Papua, New Guinea, Port Moresby. Dr. Tiwari  has successfully coordinated various research projects funded by the Government of India. Dr. Tiwari was Editor of International Journal of Agricultural Engineering for the duration of three years (2006-2008). He is Associate Editor for Solar Energy Journal (SEJ) in the area of Solar Distillation and editor of the International Journal of Energy Research since 2007.  He is also the Chief-Editor of Fundamental of Renewable Energy Applications and servers as a reviewer for many international journals. He was conferred the title of “Vigyan Ratna” by the State of Uttar Pradesh, India on March 26, 2008. He is also founder president of the Bag Energy Research Society that is responsible for energy education in rural India. Dr. Arvind Tiwari holds a  Bachelor's degree in Physics, a Master of Science in Material Science from Jamia Millia Islamia, and a Master of Technology in Microelectronics from Punjab University (2002). He completed his PhD in 2006 from IIT DElhi(Hybrid Photovoltaic Thermal System). He is a post-doctoral fellow from University of Twente, Netherland.  Besides, several other teaching engagements throughout his career, Dr Tiwari has worked as an Indian Expert in the capacity of senior lecturer in Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic, Morang, Nepal on deputation by the Government of India from January 2010 to January 2012. At present, he is working as Professor in Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. To his credit he has more than 20 research papers in international journals of repute. He has co-supervised 3 PhD students at IIT Delhi and is currently supervising an additional 4 PhD students. He is also reviewer of many international journals including Solar Energy, Energy Research, and Journal of Open Access. Mr. Shyam holds a Bachelor of Science degree (BSc) majoring in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry and Master of Science degree (MSc.) in Physics from the University of Allahabad. He also holds a Master of Technology degree (MTech) in Cryogenic Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.  During his MTech programme he worked on Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) effect in manganites and developed a magnetic position sensor based on GMI effect. He worked as an Assistant Professor at Marathwada Institute of Technology, Bulandshahr from August 2008 to October 2012 and taught Engineering Physics at the undergraduate level. Presently, he is pursuing a PhD under the supervision of Prof. G. N. Tiwari at the Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. His areas of research interest are solar thermal collectors (modelling and experiments), photovoltaics, heat and mass transfer, exergy, CO2 mitigation, climate change and carbon trading, and exergoeconomic and enviroeconomic analyses.          

Preface 7
Acknowledgements 8
Contents 9
About the Authors 21
Approximate Values of Various Constants in Solar Energy 23
1 Solar Radiation 26
Abstract 26
1.1 General Introduction 26
1.1.1 Basic Concept of Energy 26
1.1.2 Source of Solar Energy 27
1.1.3 Formation of the Atmosphere 28
1.1.4 Solar Spectrum 31
1.1.5 Solar Constant 35
1.1.6 Air Mass 37
1.1.7 Solar Time 38
1.2 Sun?Earth Angles 40
1.2.1 Solar Radiation 45
1.3 Energy and Environment 51
1.4 Instruments to Measure Solar Radiation 52
1.4.1 Pyrheliometer 52
1.4.2 Pyranometer 53
1.4.3 Sunshine Recorder 54
1.5 Solar Radiation on a Horizontal Surface 54
1.5.1 Extraterrestrial Region 54
1.5.2 Terrestrial Region 56
1.6 Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface 62
1.6.1 Conversion Factors 62
1.6.2 Total Solar Radiation on an Inclined/Tilted Surface 65
1.6.3 Monthly Average Daily Solar Radiation /bar{{/varvec H}}_{{/varvec T}} on Inclined Surfaces 67
References 73
Additional References 74
2 Daylighting 75
Abstract 75
2.1 Introduction 75
2.2 History of Daylighting 76
2.3 Components of Daylighting (Natural Light) 79
2.3.1 Daylight Factor (DF) 79
2.3.2 Daylight Factor Due to Sky Components 79
2.3.3 Daylight Factor Due to External Reflection Components (ERC) 84
2.3.4 Daylight Factor Due to Internal Reflection Components (IRC) 85
2.4 Different Concept of Daylighting 86
2.4.1 Modern Sky Light 86
2.4.2 Solar Pipe (SP)/Light Tube 87
2.4.3 Semitransparent Solar Photovoltaic Lighting System (SSPLS) 87
2.4.4 Light Shelves 88
2.4.5 Light Reflector 89
2.4.6 Tubular Daylighting Devices (TDDs) 90
2.4.7 Sawtooth Roof 90
2.4.8 Heliostats 90
2.4.9 Smart-Glass Window 91
2.4.10 Fiber-Optic Concrete Wall (FOCW) 91
2.4.11 Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) 92
2.4.12 Solarium 92
2.5 Experiments on Skylight for Natural Lighting for a Mud House: A Case Study [34] 92
2.5.1 Experimental Results 92
2.5.2 Modeling of the Skylight for a Dome-Shaped Mud House 95
2.5.2.1 Total Luminous Flux, /phi (Lumen) 96
2.5.2.2 Total Lighting Power, P (W) 97
2.5.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis for Skylight in the Mud House 99
References 106
Additional References 107
3 Law of Thermodynamics and Element of Heat Transfer 108
Abstract 108
3.1 Introduction 108
3.2 Law of Thermodynamics 108
3.2.1 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 109
3.2.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 109
3.2.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 110
3.2.4 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 116
3.3 Element of Heat Transfer 116
3.3.1 Introduction 116
3.3.2 Conduction 116
3.3.3 Convection 119
3.3.4 Radiation 130
3.3.5 Evaporation (Mass Transfer) 133
3.3.6 Total Heat-Transfer Coefficient 136
3.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient 137
References 144
Additional References 145
4 Solar Cell Materials, Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays 146
Abstract 146
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Fundamentals of Semiconductor and Solar Cells 148
4.2.1 Doping 148
4.2.2 Fermi Level 150
4.2.3 p–n Junction 151
4.2.4 p–n Junction Characteristics 153
4.2.5 Photovoltaic Effect 155
4.2.6 Solar Cell (Photovoltaic) Materials 156
4.2.7 Basic Parameters of the Solar Cell 160
4.3 Generation of Solar Cell (Photovoltaic) Materials 165
4.3.1 First Generation 165
4.3.2 Second Generation 165
4.3.3 Third Generation 166
4.4 Photovoltaic (PV) Module and PV Array 166
4.4.1 Single-Crystal Solar Cell Module 167
4.4.2 Thin-Film PV Modules 168
4.4.3 III–V Single Junction and Multijunction PV Modules 169
4.4.4 Emerging and New PV Systems 170
4.4.5 Packing Factor /left( {{/varvec /beta}_{{/bf c}} } /right) of the PV Module 172
4.4.6 Efficiency of the PV Module 172
4.4.7 Energy Balance Equations for PV Modules 173
4.4.8 Series and Parallel Combination of PV Modules 178
4.4.9 Applications of the PV Module/PV Array 179
4.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Systems 179
4.5.1 PVT Water Collectors 179
4.5.2 PVT Air Collectors 183
4.6 Degradation of Solar Cell Materials [39] 186
4.6.1 Dust Effect 186
4.6.2 Aging Effect 186
4.7 Additional Solved Examples 187
References 192
Additional References 193
5 Flat-Plate Collectors 194
Abstract 194
5.1 Introduction 194
5.2 Flat-Plate Collector 195
5.2.1 Glazing Materials 196
5.2.2 Working Principle 199
5.2.3 Characteristic Curve of the Flat-Plate Collector 200
5.2.4 Classification of Flat-Plate Collectors (FPC) 202
5.3 Flat-Plate Collector Testing 203
5.3.1 Orientable Test Rig [1] 203
5.3.2 Series-Connected Test Rig 204
5.3.3 Flat-Plate Collector with Intermittent Output 205
5.3.4 The ASHRAE Method 207
5.4 Heat-Transfer Coefficients 209
5.4.1 Overall Top-Loss Coefficient 209
5.4.2 Overall Heat-Loss Coefficient 215
5.4.3 Film Heat-Transfer Coefficient [7] 221
5.5 Optimization of Heat Losses 223
5.5.1 Transparent Insulating Material (Honeycomb) 224
5.5.2 Selective Surface 225
5.6 Fin Efficiency 225
5.7 Analysis of Flat-Plate Collectors 229
5.7.1 Basic Energy-Balance Equation 229
5.7.2 Effective Transmittance—Absorptance Product ( {/tau /alpha } )_{{/rm e}} 229
5.7.3 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Factor F^{{/prime }} 230
5.7.4 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction 237
5.7.5 Collector Heat-Removal Factor (FR) 238
5.7.6 Threshold Condition 241
5.8 Combination of FPCs 242
5.8.1 M-FPC Connected in Parallel 242
5.8.2 N-Collectors Connected in Series (Expression for TfoN) 244
5.8.3 FPC Connected in Series and Parallel 247
5.9 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Water Collector 251
5.9.1 Introduction 251
5.9.2 Partially Covered Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Water FPC [20, 21] 252
5.10 Effect of Heat Capacity in a Flat-Plate Collector 263
5.11 Optimum Inclination of the Flat-Plate Collector 265
5.12 Effect of Dust in the Flat-Plate Collector 265
References 268
Additional References 269
6 Solar Concentrator 270
Abstract 270
6.1 Introduction 270
6.2 Characteristic Parameters 273
6.3 Classification of Solar Concentrators 276
6.4 Types of Solar Concentrator 276
6.4.1 Tracking Solar Concentrators 277
6.4.1.1 One-Axis Tracking Solar Concentrators 277
6.4.1.2 Two-Axes Tracking Concentrators 280
6.4.2 Non-tracking Solar Concentrators 284
6.5 Theoretical Solar Image 287
6.6 Thermal Performance 288
6.6.1 Natural Mode 288
6.6.2 Forced Mode 291
6.6.3 N-Solar Concentrators Connected in Series 296
6.6.4 m-Solar Concentrators Connected in Parallel 297
6.6.5 Solar Concentrators Connected in Parallel and Series Combination 298
6.7 Solar Concentration Ratio (C) 298
6.7.1 Cylindrical Parabolic Solar Concentrator 300
6.7.2 Three-Dimensional Concentrator 301
6.7.3 Hemispherical Bowl Mirror 301
6.8 Solar Tracking 302
6.8.1 Three-Dimensional Solar Concentrators 302
6.8.2 Two-Dimensional Solar Concentrators 303
6.9 Materials for Solar Concentrators 303
6.9.1 Reflecting and Refracting Surfaces 303
6.9.2 Receiver Covers and Surface Coatings 304
6.9.3 Working Fluids 304
6.9.4 Insulation 305
6.10 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Concentrator 305
6.10.1 Single Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Concentrator [7] 305
References 314
Additional Reference 314
7 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) 315
Abstract 315
7.1 Introduction 315
7.2 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collectors (ETSC) 316
7.2.1 Solaron Collector 317
7.2.2 Phillips (Germany) Collector 318
7.2.3 Instantaneous Thermal Efficiency 318
7.3 Williams Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) 329
7.3.1 Sanyo Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector 329
7.3.2 Corning Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector 329
7.3.3 Phillips (Germany) Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector 329
7.3.4 Roberts Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector 331
7.3.5 General Electric (GE) TC-100 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) 331
7.3.6 Owens–Illinois (OI) Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) 332
7.4 Analysis of Owens–Illinois (OI) Tubular Solar Collector 334
7.5 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector with Heat Pipe [2] 339
7.5.1 Heat Pipe 339
7.5.2 Corning Tubular Solar Collector with Internal Reflector 340
7.5.3 Gumman Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) 341
7.5.4 Thermal Analysis 341
References 347
Additional References 347
8 Solar Water-Heating Systems 348
Abstract 348
8.1 Introduction 348
8.2 Collection-Cum-Storage Solar Water Heater 349
8.2.1 Built-in Storage Water Heater 349
8.2.2 Shallow Solar Pond (SSP) Solar Water Heater 352
8.3 Solar Water-Heating System 355
8.3.1 Natural Circulation [6] 356
8.3.2 Forced-Circulation Solar Water Heater [7–9] 361
8.4 Detailed Analysis of a Double-Loop Solar Water-Heating System 367
8.4.1 Heat Exchanger [10] 368
8.4.2 Choice of Fluid 368
8.4.3 Analysis of a Heat Exchanger 369
8.4.4 Heat-Exchanger Factor 374
8.4.5 Natural-Convection Heat Exchanger 376
8.5 Heat Collection in an Insulated Storage Tank [10] 379
8.5.1 Heat Collection with a Stratified Insulated Storage Tank 379
8.5.2 Heat Collection with a Well-Mixed Insulated Storage Tank 381
8.5.3 Effect of Heat Load [11] 384
References 389
Additional References 389
9 Solar Flat-Plate Air Collectors 390
Abstract 390
9.1 Introduction 390
9.2 Classification of Solar Air Heaters 391
9.2.1 Nonporous-Type Solar Air Heaters 391
9.2.2 Porous-Type Solar Air Heaters 393
9.3 Conventional Nonporous Solar Air Heaters 394
9.3.1 Steady-State Analysis for Natural Mode 395
9.3.2 Steady-State Analysis for Forced Mode 400
9.3.3 Transient Analysis for Forced Mode 409
9.4 Double-Exposure Solar Air Heaters 410
9.5 Solar Air Heater with Flow on Both Sides of the Absorber 412
9.6 Two-Pass Solar Air Heater 413
9.6.1 Nonporous Conventional Two-Pass Solar Air Heater 413
9.6.2 Comparison with Experimental Results 414
9.6.3 PVT Nonporous Conventional Two-Pass Solar Air Heater [9] 415
9.7 Effect of Fin 419
9.7.1 Air Heater with Finned Absorber 419
9.7.2 Air Heater with Vee-Corrugated Absorber 420
9.8 Reverse-Absorber Air Heater 422
9.8.1 Working Principle 422
9.8.2 Energy Balance 422
9.8.3 Performance Study 424
9.9 Solar Air Heaters with Porous Absorbers 426
9.9.1 Matrix Solar Air Heaters 426
9.9.2 Overlapped Glass-Plate Solar Air Heaters 428
9.9.3 Solar Air Heater with Honeycomb Absorber 429
9.10 Testing of a Solar Air Collector 430
9.10.1 Performance of an Air Collector Versus that of a Liquid Collector 431
9.11 Parametric Studies 431
9.11.1 Effect of Air Leakage 431
9.11.2 Effect of Particulate 432
References 436
Additional References 437
10 Solar House 438
Abstract 438
10.1 Introduction 438
10.2 Physical Parameters 441
10.2.1 Air Temperature 441
10.2.2 Relative Humidity 441
10.2.3 Air Movement 442
10.2.4 Mean Radiant Temperature 442
10.2.5 Air Pressure 443
10.2.6 Air Components 443
10.2.7 Air Electricity 444
10.2.8 Acoustics 444
10.2.9 Day Lighting 444
10.3 Physiological Parameters 444
10.3.1 Nutritional Intake 444
10.3.2 Age 445
10.3.3 Ethnic Influences 445
10.3.4 Sex 445
10.3.5 Constitution 445
10.4 Intermediate Parameters 445
10.4.1 Clothing 445
10.4.2 Activity Level 446
10.4.3 Adaption and Acclimatisation 446
10.4.4 Time of the Day/Season 446
10.4.5 Occupancy 447
10.4.6 Psychological Factors 447
10.5 World Climatic Zone 447
10.6 Solair Temperature 448
10.6.1 Horizontal Bare Surface 448
10.6.2 Horizontal Wetted Surface 452
10.6.3 Blackened/Glazed Surface 454
10.7 Thermal Gain 455
10.7.1 Direct Gain 455
10.7.2 Indirect Gain 458
10.7.3 Isolated Gain 469
10.8 Thermal Cooling 470
10.8.1 Evaporative Cooling [5] 471
10.8.2 Infiltration/Ventilation 471
10.8.3 Wind Tower 472
10.8.4 Earth?Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE) 472
10.8.5 Air Vent 475
10.8.6 Shading 476
10.8.7 Rock Bed Regenerative Cooler 477
10.8.8 Radiative Cooling 478
10.8.9 Green/Cool Roof 479
10.8.10 Heating and Cooling 479
10.9 Time Constant 480
10.10 Approximate Methods 481
10.11 Solar Load?Ratio Method 483
References 491
Additional References 491
11 Solar Cooling 492
Abstract 492
11.1 Introduction 492
11.2 Solar Air Conditioning 493
11.2.1 Solar-Absorption Process [1] 493
11.2.2 Solar-Desiccant Cooling 499
11.2.3 Solar Mechanical Cooling 500
11.2.4 Solar Photovoltaic Cooling 501
11.2.5 Difference Between Basic Vapour Compression and the Absorption Cooling Cycle 503
11.3 Comparison of Different Solar Cooling Technologies 504
References 508
Additional Reference 508
12 Solar Crop Dryers 509
Abstract 509
12.1 Importance of Solar-Drying 509
12.2 Solar Crop-Drying 511
12.2.1 Open-Sun Drying (OSD) 512
12.2.2 Direct Solar Drying (DSD) 522
12.2.3 Indirect Solar Drying (ISD) [23] 524
12.2.4 PVT Greenhouse Dryer [24] 526
12.2.5 Reverse-Absorber Cabinet Dryer 529
12.3 Deep-Bed Grain Drying 532
12.4 Energy Balance for Indirect Solar Drying (ISD) Systems 535
References 537
Additional References 538
13 Solar Distillation 539
Abstract 539
13.1 Importance of Solar Distillation 539
13.2 Working Principle of Solar Distillation 540
13.3 Thermal Efficiency 543
13.3.1 Instantaneous Thermal Efficiency 543
13.3.2 An Overall Thermal Efficiency 544
13.4 Basic Heat Transfer 545
13.4.1 External Heat Transfer 545
13.4.2 Internal Heat Transfer [2] 546
13.4.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient 549
13.4.4 Distillate Yield 553
13.5 Other Designs of Passive/Active Solar Stills [1, 2] 553
13.5.1 Passive Solar Still 554
13.5.2 Active Solar Still [10] 559
13.6 Heat and Mass Transfer: A New Approach [14] 561
13.7 Thermal Modelling 564
13.8 Effect of Design and Climatic Parameters 569
References 572
Additional References 573
14 Energy Analysis 574
Abstract 574
14.1 Introduction 574
14.2 Embodied-Energy Analysis 575
14.3 Energy Density (Intensity) 576
14.4 Overall Thermal Energy 577
14.5 Energy-Payback Time (EPBT) 577
14.6 Embodied Energy and Payback Time of Solar Systems 578
14.6.1 PV Module 578
14.6.2 Flat-Plate Collector 580
14.6.3 Hybrid Flat-Plate Collector 583
14.6.4 Hybrid Air Collector 583
14.6.5 Solar Still 585
14.6.6 Solar Dryer 586
14.6.7 Evacuated Tubular Collector 589
References 591
Additional References 591
15 Energy Storage 592
Abstract 592
15.1 Introduction 592
15.2 Sensible Heat Storage [1] 593
15.2.1 Liquid-Media Storage 595
15.2.2 Solid-Media Storage 600
15.2.3 Dual-Media Thermal Energy Storage (TES) 603
15.3 Latent-Heat Storage (LHS) 604
15.3.1 Energy Analysis [1] 606
15.3.2 Exergy Analysis 608
15.3.3 Applications of PCM Materials [6] 609
15.4 Chemical-Energy Storage (CES) 611
15.5 Solar Battery 612
15.6 PV Pumped-Storage Hydroelectricity 612
References 615
Additional References 615
16 Solar-Power Generation 617
Abstract 617
16.1 Introduction 617
16.2 Power Generation by PV Modules 618
16.2.1 PV Arrays 618
16.2.2 Applications of PV Cells 618
16.2.3 Charge Controller 621
16.2.3.1 Working Principle 621
16.2.4 PV Battery 622
16.2.5 DC–AC Converter and Inverter 622
16.2.6 Off Grid?Connected PV Power Systems 623
16.3 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) 623
16.3.1 Solar Stirling Engine 623
16.3.2 Concentrating Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) 624
16.3.3 Solar Steam Turbine 624
16.3.4 Parabolic-Trough Concentrator Power 626
16.3.5 Latent-Heat Storage Concentrating Solar Power [1] 629
References 634
Additional References 634
17 Other Applications of Solar Energy 635
Abstract 635
17.1 Introduction 635
17.2 Fossil Fuel [1] 635
17.3 Box-Type Solar Cooker 638
17.4 Swimming Pool Heating 640
17.4.1 Passive Heating 640
17.4.2 Active Heating of a Swimming Pool [3] 641
17.5 Solar Heating of Biogas Plant [4] 642
17.5.1 Active Mode 644
17.5.2 Design Digester 645
17.6 Greenhouse [5] 646
17.6.1 Working Principle of a Greenhouse 646
17.6.2 Different Cooling Methods 647
17.6.3 Different Heating Methods 651
17.7 Solar Ponds [2] 652
17.7.1 Stability Criteria for a Nonconvective Solar Pond 653
17.7.2 Salt-Stabilized Nonconvective Solar Pond 654
17.7.3 Applications 655
References 659
Additional References 659
18 Energy Conservation 660
Abstract 660
18.1 Introduction 660
18.2 Energy Efficiency 661
18.3 Solar Fraction [2] 662
18.4 Energy Conservation in Building 663
18.5 Energy Conservation in Cooking 664
18.6 Energy Conservation in Transportation 665
18.7 Commercial Sector 666
18.8 Industrial Sector 667
References 668
Additional References 668
19 Exergy Analysis 669
Abstract 669
19.1 Introduction 669
19.2 Exergy Analysis 670
19.3 Energy Matrices 672
19.3.1 Energy-Payback Time (EPBT) 673
19.3.2 Energy-Production Factor (EPF) 673
19.3.3 Life Cycle Conversion Efficiency (LCCE) 674
19.4 Energy Matrices of Different Solar Systems 674
19.4.1 Flat-Plate Collector 674
19.4.2 Solar Cooker 676
19.4.3 Solar Still 677
19.4.4 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector 678
19.4.5 PV Module 679
19.4.6 Hybrid Flat-Plate Collector 679
19.4.7 Hybrid Air Collector 679
19.4.8 PVT Greenhouse Dryer 679
19.4.9 PVT Solar Concentrators 680
19.5 CO2 Emissions 680
19.6 Carbon Credit (C-Credit [CC]) [10] 682
19.6.1 Formulation 682
19.6.2 A Case Study with the BIPVT System 683
References 685
Additional References 685
20 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 686
Abstract 686
20.1 Introduction 686
20.2 Cost Analysis 687
20.2.1 Future Value Factor or Compound-Interest Factor (CIF) 687
20.2.2 Present-Value Factor 688
20.2.3 Uniform Annual Cost (Unacost) 688
20.2.4 Sinking-Fund Factor (SFF) 689
20.3 Cash Flow 690
20.4 Capitalized Cost 691
20.5 Net Present Value (NPV) 692
20.6 Analytical Expression for Payout Time 694
20.7 Benefit?Cost Analysis 694
20.8 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 697
20.9 Effect of Depreciation 700
Additional References 704
For More Examples and Problems in this Chapter, Please See the Following References 705
Appendix I 706
Appendix II 711
Appendix III 712
Appendix IIIA 712
Appendix IIIB 717
Appendix IIIC 717
Appendix IV 723
Appendix V 725
Appendix VI 739
Appendix VII 743
Appendix VIII 744
Appendix IX 745
Glossary 747
References 773