Handbook of Food Processing Equipment (eBook)

Contents 6
Chapter 1: Design of Food Processes and Food Processing Plants 14
1.1 Introduction 14
1.2 Overview of Chemical Process and Plant Design 15
1.2.1 Process Flow Sheets 16
1.2.2 Types of Process Designs 16
1.2.3 Material and Energy Balances 17
1.2.4 Design of Equipment 18
1.2.5 Plant Layout and Buildings 19
1.2.6 Economic Analysis in Process/Plant Design 20
1.2.6.1 Fixed Capital Investment 20
1.2.6.2 Cost of Equipment 21
1.2.6.3 Engineering Cost Indices 22
1.2.7 Manufacturing Cost and Profitability 24
1.2.7.1 Manufacturing Cost 24
1.2.7.2 Profitability 24
1.2.7.3 Breakeven Point 26
1.2.8 Computer-Aided Process/Plant Design 27
1.3 Design of Food Processes 28
1.3.1 Unit Operations in Food Processing 32
1.3.2 Food Process Flow Sheets 35
1.3.3 Material and Energy Balances 36
1.3.4 Computer-Aided Food Process Design 41
1.4 Food Plant Design 41
1.4.1 Elements of Food Plant Design 42
1.4.1.1 General Aspects 42
1.4.1.2 New Food Plants 45
1.4.1.3 Plant Improvement 47
1.4.1.4 Plant Expansion 47
1.4.1.5 Mobile Food Plants 48
1.4.1.6 Advanced Food Plants 48
1.4.2 Good Manufacturing Practices 49
1.4.2.1 GMPs 49
1.4.2.2 Food Safety Programs and HACCP 50
1.4.3 Food Plant Economics 51
1.4.3.1 Overview of Food Plant Economics 51
1.4.3.2 Economic Analysis of Food Plants 55
References 60
Chapter 2: Design and Selection of Food Processing Equipment 64
2.1 Introduction 64
2.2 Sizing and Costing of Equipment 65
2.3 Materials of Construction 67
2.3.1 Metals 68
2.3.1.1 Steel 69
2.3.1.2 Stainless Steels 70
2.3.1.3 Aluminum 71
2.3.1.4 Copper 71
2.3.1.5 Other Metals 72
2.3.2 Plastics-Rubber 72
2.3.3 Glass-Ceramics 73
2.3.4 Wood 73
2.4 Fabrication of Equipment 74
2.4.1 Strength of Construction 74
2.4.1.1 General Aspects 74
2.4.1.2 Sensitive Construction Points 76
2.4.1.3 Proper Engineering 76
2.4.2 Fabrication and Installation of Equipment 77
2.4.2.1 General Process Equipment 77
2.4.2.2 Food Processing Equipment 77
2.4.2.3 Installation of Process Equipment 78
2.5 Hygienic Design of Food Processing Equipment 79
2.5.1 Hygienic Standards and Regulations 79
2.5.2 CleaningCIP systems of Food Equipment 82
2.6 Selection of Food Processing Equipment 85
2.6.1 Selection of Equipment 85
2.6.1.1 Construction Characteristics 85
Dimensions/Weight 85
Cleaning Facility 86
Maintenance 86
Standardization of Spare Parts 86
Quality of Materials 86
Firmness/Durability 87
Automation 87
2.6.1.2 Operational Characteristics 87
Reliability 87
Convenience 88
Safety 88
Instrumentation 90
Ergonomics 90
Efficiency 90
Effectiveness 90
Accuracy 91
Environmental Impact 91
2.6.2 Testing of Equipment 91
2.6.3 Equipment Specifications 92
2.7 Directories of Equipment 95
2.7.1 Directories of Food Equipment 95
2.7.2 Exhibitions of Food Equipment 96
References 96
Chapter 3: Mechanical Transport and Storage Equipment 99
3.1 Introduction 99
3.2 Mechanical Transport Equipment 100
3.2.1 Fluid Food Transport EquipmentFluid food transport equipment 100
3.2.1.1 Rheological Properties 100
3.2.1.2 Mechanical Energy Balance 103
3.2.1.3 Friction Losses 104
3.2.1.4 Pump Characteristics 106
Centrifugal Pumps 106
Positive Displacement Pumps 110
Other Pumps 114
Requirements for Food Pumps 115
Pump Selection 115
3.2.1.5 Pump Auxiliaries 116
Electric Motors 116
Mechanical Seals 117
3.2.1.6 Process Piping and Valves 117
Piping 117
Valves 118
3.2.1.7 Hygienic Considerations 119
3.2.2 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Transport EquipmentHydraulic conveyorsPneumatic conveyors 120
3.2.2.1 Pneumatic Conveyors 120
3.2.2.2 Hydraulic Conveying 122
3.2.3 Mechanical Conveyors 124
3.2.3.1 Introduction 124
3.2.3.2 Selection of Conveyors 124
Uniform Belt Conveyors 126
Segmented Belt Conveyors 128
Roll and Skate Wheel Conveyors 130
Chain Conveyors 131
Screw Conveyors 134
Vibratory Conveyors 135
Mobile Transport Systems, Hoists Cranes, and Elevators 136
Robots 137
Hygienic Considerations 137
3.3 Food Storage Equipment 138
3.3.1 Introduction 138
3.3.2 Storage of SolidsStorage of Solids 138
3.3.2.1 Pallets 138
3.3.2.2 Box Pallets 139
Characteristics of Box Pallets 140
Selection and Use of Box Pallets 140
3.3.2.3 Bags 141
Characteristics of Bags 141
3.3.2.4 Bins and SilosBins and silos 142
Characteristics of Bins and Silos 143
Construction Consideration 144
Emptying of Bins and Silos 145
Environmental Considerations 146
Material Flowability 147
Safety Considerations 149
3.3.3 Storage of LiquidsStorage of liquids 150
3.3.3.1 Vats and VesselsVats and vessels 150
Basic Characteristics 151
Construction Considerations 152
Processing Aspects 152
3.3.3.2 Tanks 153
Characteristics of Tanks 153
Fermentation Tanks 154
Tank Regulations 156
References 158
Chapter 4: Mechanical Processing Equipment 160
4.1 Introduction 160
4.2 Size Reduction 160
4.2.1 Introduction 160
4.2.2 CuttingCutting 164
4.2.2.1 General Aspects 164
4.2.2.2 Cutting Tools 167
Cutting Elements 167
Portable Cutting Tools 169
Cutting Equipment 170
Band Saws 171
Slicers/Dicers 171
Meat Mincers 172
Cutters 172
Other Cutting Tools 174
4.2.2.3 Selection of Equipment 175
4.2.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment 176
4.2.3.1 Introduction 176
Rittinger 180
Kick 180
Bond 181
4.2.3.2 Particle Size Distribution 182
4.2.3.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment 182
General Aspects 182
Product Between Two Crushing/Grinding Tools 184
Roll Crushers 184
Roll Mills 185
Pan Mills 187
Strainers/Pulpers 188
Product Impact 189
Hammer Mills 189
Hammer Crushers 191
Disk Grinders 191
Disintegrators 193
Stresses Due to Relative Particle Motion 194
Rotary Grinders 194
Impeller Attritors 195
Jet Mills 195
4.2.3.4 Selection of Equipment 197
4.3 Size Enlargement 197
4.3.1 Introduction 197
4.3.2 Agglomeration Equipment 200
4.3.2.1 General Aspects 200
4.3.2.2 Free Structure Equipment 201
General Aspects 201
Rolling Agglomeration 204
Rotating Pans 204
Rotating Drums 206
Slow Agitation Equipment 206
Vibration Equipment 207
Mixing Agglomeration Equipment 207
High-Speed Agitation 207
Fluidized Bed-Spray Agglomerators (Vometec, Glatt) 210
Drying Agglomeration 212
4.3.2.3 Compression Agglomeration 213
General Aspects 213
Compression Agglomeration Equipment 213
Tableting Equipment 213
Roll Pressing Equipment 215
Pelletizing Equipment 216
4.3.3 Selection of Agglomeration Equipment 218
4.4 Homogenization 218
4.4.1 Introduction 218
4.4.2 Homogenization Equipment 219
4.4.2.1 Pressure Homogenization 219
4.4.2.2 Colloid Mills 223
4.4.2.3 Rotor-Stator Homogenizers 223
4.4.2.4 Ultrasonic Homogenizers 224
4.4.2.5 High-Pressure Homogenization 224
4.5 Mixing and Forming Equipment 225
4.5.1 Introduction 225
4.5.2 Fluid Mixing Equipment 225
4.5.2.1 Agitated Tanks 225
4.5.2.2 Power of Mixing 227
4.5.2.3 Industrial Mixers 227
4.5.2.4 Food Mixers 229
4.5.2.5 Selection of Mixers 229
4.5.3 Paste and Dough Mixing Equipment 230
4.5.4 Extrusion and Forming Equipment 231
4.5.4.1 Extruders 231
4.5.4.2 Forming Equipment 234
4.5.5 Butter and Cheese Processing Equipment 237
4.5.6 Solid Mixing and Encrusting Equipment 238
References 241
Chapter 5: Mechanical Separation Equipment 244
5.1 Introduction 244
5.2 Classification Operations 246
5.2.1 Grading 247
5.2.2 Sorting 248
5.3 Solid/Solid SeparationsSolid/solid separation 252
5.3.1 Screening 252
5.3.1.1 Sieve Sizes 253
5.3.1.2 Sieving Equipment 254
Grizzlies/Belt Screens 255
Trommels 255
Flat Screens 256
Rotating Sifters 256
Screening Cloths 256
Magnetic Separators 257
Electrostatic Separators 257
5.3.1.3 Sieving of Flour 257
5.3.2 Fluid Classification 258
5.3.2.1 Air Classifiers 258
5.3.2.2 Wet Classifiers 261
Wet Sieving 261
Hydrocyclones 261
5.4 Solid/Liquid Separators 262
5.4.1 Screens 262
5.4.2 Sedimentation Equipment 262
5.4.3 Industrial FiltersIndustrial filters 263
5.4.3.1 Cake Filtration 264
Plate-and-Frame Filters 265
Vacuum Rotary Filters 266
Pressure Filters 267
Filtration of Juices 268
5.4.3.2 Depth Filtration 268
Sand Filters 268
Dual Media Filters 269
Sterile Filters 269
5.4.4 Centrifuges 269
5.4.4.1 Centrifugal Separators 270
5.4.4.2 Filtering Centrifuges 273
5.4.5 Mechanical ExpressionMechanical expression, solid/liquid separation 274
5.4.5.1 General Aspects 274
5.4.5.2 Batch Presses 274
Box and Pot Presses 274
Curb and Cage Presses 275
5.4.5.3 Continuous Presses 275
Screw Presses 275
Roller Presses 276
Belt Presses 277
Juice Reamers 277
5.4.5.4 Fruit Juice Expression Equipment 277
Apple and Grape Juices 278
Citrus Juices 279
5.5 Solid/Air Separators 281
5.5.1 Cyclone Separators 281
5.5.2 Bag Filters 283
5.5.3 Air Filters 285
5.5.4 Electrical Filters 286
5.5.5 Wet Scrubbers 287
5.6 Removal of Food-Related Parts 287
5.6.1 General Aspects 287
5.6.2 Removal of Undesired Own Parts 288
5.6.2.1 Separations in Animal Products 288
Skinning 289
De-hairing 289
Cutting 289
Screening 290
Removal of Mussel Shells 290
Blood 291
5.6.2.2 Separations in Plant Products 291
Breaking 291
Dehulling 292
Brushing/Polishing 293
Destemming 293
Pitting 294
Coring/Scooping 294
Cutting/Slicing 296
Peeling 296
5.6.3 Removal of Desired Parts 298
5.6.4 Food Cleaning Operations 298
5.6.4.1 General Aspects 298
5.6.4.2 Wet Cleaning 299
5.6.4.3 Dry Cleaning 301
References 301
Chapter 6: Heat Transfer Equipment 304
6.1 Introduction 304
6.2 Heat Transfer CoefficientsHeat/film transfer coefficient (h) 304
6.3 Empirical Correlations of (h) 307
6.3.1 General Correlations 307
6.3.2 Simplified Equations for Air and Water 309
6.3.3 Heat Transfer Factor 310
6.4 Heat Heat exchangersExchangers 311
6.4.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 311
6.4.2 Fouling of Heat Exchangers 313
6.4.3 Residence Time Distribution 314
6.4.4 Tubular Heat Exchangers 315
6.4.5 Plate Heat Exchangers 317
6.4.6 Agitated Kettles 321
6.4.7 Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers 323
6.4.8 Direct Heat Exchangers 325
6.4.9 Baking and Roasting Ovens 326
6.4.10 Fryers 329
6.4.11 Radiation Heaters 330
6.4.11.1 Infrared Heaters 331
6.4.12 Heat Generation Processes 332
6.4.12.1 Microwave and Dielectric Heating 332
6.4.12.2 Ohmic Heating 334
6.4.12.3 Pulsed Electric Field 334
6.4.13 Hygienic Considerations 335
References 340
Chapter 7: Food Evaporation Equipment 342
7.1 Introduction 342
7.2 Heat Transfer in Evaporation 343
7.2.1 Physical Properties 343
7.2.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients 344
7.2.3 Fouling in Evaporators 344
7.2.4 Heat Transfer in Film Evaporators 345
7.2.4.1 Falling Film Evaporators 345
7.2.4.2 Rising Film Evaporators 348
7.2.5 Falling Film Evaporation of Fruit Juices 349
7.3 Food Quality Considerations 351
7.4 Food Evaporators 351
7.4.1 Material and Energy Balances 351
7.4.2 Long Residence-Time Evaporators 352
7.4.2.1 Jacketed Vessel Evaporators 353
7.4.2.2 Coil Evaporators 353
7.4.2.3 Short-Tube Evaporators 353
7.4.2.4 Forced-Circulation Evaporators 353
7.4.3 Short Residence-Time Evaporators 355
7.4.3.1 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators 355
7.4.3.2 Plate Evaporators 356
7.4.3.3 Agitated-Film Evaporators 357
7.4.3.4 Centrifugal Film Evaporators 358
7.5 Energy-Saving Evaporation Systems 359
7.5.1 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 359
7.5.2 Vapor Recompression Evaporators 362
7.5.3 Heat Pump Evaporators 364
7.5.4 Combined Reverse Osmosis/Evaporation 366
7.5.5 Water Desalination 366
7.5.6 Waste-Heat Evaporators 366
7.6 Evaporator Components 367
7.6.1 Evaporator Bodies 367
7.6.1.1 LTV Evaporators 367
7.6.1.2 Plate Evaporators 368
7.6.2 Vapor/Liquid Separators 368
7.6.3 Condensers 369
7.6.4 Vacuum Systems 370
7.6.5 Evaporator Control 371
7.6.6 Testing of Evaporators 371
7.6.7 Hygienic Considerations 372
References 375
Chapter 8: Food Dehydration Equipment 377
8.1 Introduction 377
8.2 Principles of Drying 378
8.2.1 Psychrometric Calculations 378
8.2.2 Drying Rates 380
8.2.3 Food Dehydration Technology 384
8.3 Design and Selection of Food Dryers 385
8.3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer 386
8.3.2 Modeling and Simulation of Dryers 389
8.3.3 Design of Industrial Dryers 391
8.3.4 Selection of Industrial Dryers 392
8.3.5 Commercial Food Drying Equipment 393
8.3.5.1 Sun Drying 394
8.3.5.2 Solar Dryers 395
8.3.5.3 Bin, Silo, and Tower Dryers 397
8.3.5.4 Tray/Cabinet Dryers 399
8.3.5.5 Tunnel Dryers 400
8.3.5.6 Conveyor Belt Dryers 400
8.3.5.7 Rotary Dryers 402
8.3.5.8 Fluid Bed Dryers 403
8.3.5.9 Spouted Bed Dryers 404
8.3.5.10 Pneumatic/Flash Dryers 404
8.3.5.11 Agitated Dryers 407
8.3.5.12 Spray Dryers 409
8.3.5.13 Drum Dryers 412
8.3.5.14 Vacuum and Freeze Dryers 413
8.3.6 Special Food Dryers 415
8.3.6.1 Microwave and Dielectric Dryers 415
8.3.6.2 Infrared Dryers 417
8.3.6.3 Tumbling Dryers 417
8.3.6.4 Centrifugal Dryers 417
8.3.6.5 Explosion Puffing 417
8.3.6.6 Foam-Mat Drying 418
8.3.6.7 Acoustic Dryers 418
8.3.6.8 Osmotic Dehydration 418
8.3.7 Hygienic and Safety Considerations 419
8.4 Energy and Cost Considerations of Drying 420
8.4.1 Heat Sources for Drying 420
8.4.2 Heat Recovery 421
8.4.3 Energy-Efficient Dryers 422
8.4.3.1 Superheated Steam Dryers 422
8.4.3.2 Heat Pump Dryers 422
8.4.3.3 Impingement Dryers 422
8.4.4 Cost Considerations 423
References 425
Chapter 9: Refrigeration and Freezing Equipment 430
9.1 Introduction 430
9.2 Refrigeration Equipment 431
9.2.1 Refrigeration Cycles 431
9.2.2 Compressors 436
9.2.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors 436
General Characteristics 436
Selection of Reciprocating Compressors 439
9.2.2.2 Rotary Compressors 440
9.2.2.3 Centrifugal Compressors 441
9.2.2.4 Screw Compressors 441
9.2.3 Evaporators 442
9.2.3.1 Forced Convection Air Coolers 443
General Characteristics 443
Defrosting 446
9.2.3.2 Bath and Tube Evaporators 447
9.2.3.3 Shell-and-Tube Evaporators 448
9.2.3.4 Shell-and-Coil Evaporators 449
9.2.3.5 Double-Pipe Evaporator 450
9.2.3.6 Baudelot Evaporators 450
9.2.3.7 Double-Wall Evaporators 450
9.2.3.8 Cooling/Freezing Evaporators for Solids 451
Improvement of Heat Transfer in Evaporators 451
9.2.4 Condensers 452
9.2.4.1 Tube Condensers 452
9.2.4.2 Evaporative Condensers 453
9.2.4.3 Tower Condensers 453
9.2.4.4 Air Condensers 454
9.2.5 Capacity Control 454
9.3 Refrigerants 455
9.3.1 Introduction 455
9.3.1.1 General Aspects 455
9.3.1.2 Chlorine-Containing Refrigerants 456
9.3.1.3 Requirements of Refrigerants 456
9.3.1.4 Chemical Requirements 461
9.3.2 Natural Refrigerants 461
9.3.2.1 Ammonia (R717) 461
9.3.2.2 Propane (R290) and Isobutane (R600a) 462
9.3.2.3 Carbon Dioxide 462
9.3.3 Fluorocarbon and Blend Refrigerants 462
9.3.3.1 Fluorocarbons 462
9.3.3.2 Blends 463
9.4 Lubricants 464
9.4.1 Main Types of Lubricants 464
9.4.2 Function of Lubrication 465
9.4.3 Requirements for Good Lubrication 465
9.4.4 Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants 467
9.4.5 Additives 468
9.5 Cooling of Foods 468
9.5.1 Chilling 468
9.5.2 Cooling Equipment 471
9.5.2.1 Cooling of Solids 471
Hydrocooling 471
Vacuum Cooling 473
Surface Contact Cooling 474
Tunnel Cooling 474
9.5.2.2 Cooling of Liquids 475
Plate Heat Exchangers 475
Scraped Surface Exchangers 476
Jacketed Vessels 476
Shell-and-Coil Equipment 476
Vacuum Cooling Equipment 476
Combined Cooling with Mixing 477
9.6 Freezing of Food 477
9.6.1 Freezing 477
9.6.2 Freezing Equipment 483
9.6.2.1 Air Freezing Equipment 483
Tunnel Freezers 483
Fluidized Bed 484
9.6.2.2 Belt Freezers 485
9.6.2.3 Cold Surface Freezing 487
9.6.2.4 Liquid Freezing 488
Liquid Freezers 488
Frozen Pellets 489
Cryogenic Liquids 489
9.6.3 Thawing Equipment 491
9.6.3.1 Convective Methods of Thawing 491
9.6.3.2 Vacuum Thawing 492
9.6.3.3 Contact Thawing 492
9.6.3.4 Electrical Thawing 493
9.7 Cold Storage 494
9.7.1 General Aspects 494
9.7.2 Reduction of Weight Loss 498
9.7.2.1 Temperature Adjustment 499
9.7.2.2 Humidification 500
9.7.2.3 Controlled Atmosphere 500
9.8 Ice Manufacturing 502
References 508
Chapter 10: Thermal Processing Equipment 512
10.1 Introduction 512
10.2 Kinetics of Thermal Inactivation 513
10.2.1 Inactivation of Microorganisms and Enzymes 513
10.2.2 Thermal Damage to Food Components 516
10.3 Heat Transfer Considerations 516
10.3.1 General Aspects 516
10.3.2 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer 517
10.4 Thermal Process Calculations 520
10.4.1 In-container Sterilization 520
10.4.1.1 General Method 520
10.4.1.2 Formula Method 522
10.4.1.3 Commercial Sterility 523
10.4.2 Continuous Flow Thermal Processes 523
10.4.2.1 One-Phase Fluid Foods 523
10.4.2.2 Two-Phase Foods 524
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer Considerations 525
Validation of the Aseptic Processes 525
10.5 Thermal Processing Equipment 526
10.5.1 General Aspects 526
10.5.2 In-container Sterilizers 526
10.5.2.1 Canning Operations 527
(i) Receiving 527
(ii) Washing 528
(iii) Inspecting/Sorting 529
(iv) Grading 529
(v) Blanching 529
(vi) Peeling 530
(vii) Cutting 530
(viii) Filling 530
(ix) Exhausting 531
(x) Closing 531
(xi) Sterilizing 532
(xii) Labeling/Casing/Warehousing 532
(xiii) Can Sizes 532
(xiv) Typical Thermal Processes 533
10.5.2.2 Batch Sterilizers 533
(i) Still Retorts 534
(ii) Batch Rotary Sterilizers 535
(iii) Crateless Retorts 536
(iv) Retorts for Glass and Flexible Containers 536
10.5.2.3 Continuous In-container Sterilizers 537
(i) Rotary Cookers/Coolers 537
(ii) Hydrostatic Sterilizers 538
10.5.2.4 New In-container Sterilizers 540
(i) Circulating Water and Steam Sterilizers 540
(ii) Track Flow Sterilizers 542
(iii) ``Flash 18´´ Sterilizers 543
(iv) Flame Sterilizers 543
10.5.3 Continuous Flow (UHT) Sterilizers 544
10.5.3.1 General Aspects 544
10.5.3.2 Pumping 545
10.5.3.3 Direct Heating 546
10.5.3.4 Indirect Heating 546
(i) Plate Heat Exchangers 546
(ii) Tubular Heat Exchangers 546
(iii) SSHE Heaters 547
(iv) Ohmic Heating 547
(v) Aseptic Packaging 548
10.5.4 Thermal Pasteurizers 548
10.5.4.1 General Aspects 548
10.5.4.2 In-container Pasteurizers 549
10.5.4.3 Continuous Flow (HTST) Pasteurizers 550
10.5.5 Thermal Blanchers 552
10.5.6 Hygienic Considerations 553
References 555
Chapter 11: Mass Transfer Equipment 558
11.1 Introduction 558
11.2 Distillation Equipment 560
11.2.1 Vapor/Liquid Equilibria 560
11.2.1.1 Activity Coefficients and Relative Volatilities 560
11.2.1.2 Nonideal Mixtures and Azeotropes 562
11.2.1.3 Volatile Food Aromas 564
11.2.2 Determination of Equilibrium Stages 566
11.2.2.1 Graphical Methods 568
11.2.2.2 Analytical Methods 571
11.2.2.3 Column Efficiency 572
11.2.3 Food Distillation Equipment 573
11.2.3.1 Ethanol Distillation 573
11.2.3.2 Essence Recovery Units 574
Stripping of Aromas 576
Fractionation of Aromas 576
11.2.3.3 Spinning Cone Stripping Column 577
11.2.3.4 Molecular Distillation 578
11.3 Solvent Extraction/Leaching Equipment 579
11.3.1 Liquid/Liquid and Liquid/Solid Equilibria 579
11.3.2 Determination of Equilibrium Stages 582
11.3.3 Mass Transfer Considerations 583
11.3.4 Food Extraction and Leaching Equipment 585
11.3.5 Curing 588
11.3.5.1 Introduction 588
11.3.5.2 Curing Processes 589
Dry and Wet Curing and Soaking 589
Muscle Injection 589
Artery Injection 591
Combined Methods of Curing 591
Tenderizing 591
Automation of Curing Processes 592
Smoking 592
11.4 Gas/Liquid Absorption Equipment 594
11.4.1 Gas/Liquid Equilibria 595
11.4.2 Determination of Equilibrium Stages 596
11.4.2.1 Tray Columns 596
11.4.2.2 Packed Towers 597
11.4.3 Gas Absorption and Stripping Equipment 599
11.4.3.1 Agitated Vessels 599
11.4.3.2 Multistage Columns and Packed Towers 599
11.4.3.3 Gas Scrubbers 600
11.5 Adsorption and Ion Exchange Equipment 600
11.5.1 Adsorption Equilibria and Mass Transfer 601
11.5.2 Adsorption Equipment 602
11.5.3 Ion Exchange Equipment 603
11.5.4 Food Applications 604
11.5.4.1 Water Treatment 604
11.5.4.2 Recovery of Valuable Components 604
11.5.4.3 Removal of Undesirable Components 605
11.6 Crystallization from Solution Equipment 606
11.6.1 Solubility Considerations 606
11.6.2 Nucleation and Mass Transfer 607
11.6.3 Industrial Crystallizers 608
References 611
Chapter 12: Equipment for Novel Food Processes 614
12.1 Introduction 614
12.2 Membrane Separation Equipment 615
12.2.1 Mass Transfer Considerations 615
12.2.2 Membranes and Membrane Modules 617
12.2.3 Membrane Separation Systems 618
12.2.3.1 General Considerations 618
12.2.3.2 Design of Membrane Systems 620
12.2.4 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 620
12.2.4.1 RO Systems 621
12.2.4.2 Food Applications of RO 621
12.2.5 Ultrafiltration 622
12.2.5.1 UF Systems 622
12.2.5.2 Food Applications of UF 624
12.2.6 Microfiltration 625
12.2.6.1 MF Systems 626
12.2.6.2 Food Applications of Microfiltration 627
12.2.7 Pervaporation 627
12.2.8 Electrodialysis 629
12.3 SCF Extraction 630
12.3.1 Supercritical Fluids 630
12.3.2 SCF Extraction Processes and Equipment 631
12.3.3 SCF Extraction in Food Processing 632
12.4 Crystallization from Melt 633
12.4.1 Freeze Concentration 633
12.4.1.1 Crystallization of Ice 633
12.4.1.2 Ice Separation 634
12.4.1.3 Food Applications 634
12.4.2 Fat Fractionation 635
12.4.2.1 Dry Fractionation 635
12.4.2.2 Detergent Fractionation 636
12.4.2.3 Solvent Fractionation 636
12.5 Nonthermal Food Preservation 636
12.5.1 Food Irradiation 637
12.5.1.1 Review of Food Irradiation 637
12.5.1.2 Food Preservation by Irradiation 638
12.5.1.3 Sources of Food Irradiation 640
12.5.1.4 Cost of Irradiation 642
12.5.2 High-Pressure Processing 643
12.5.3 Pulsed Electric Field Processing 644
12.5.4 Nanotechnology 645
12.6 Robotics 646
References 650
Chapter 13: Food Packaging Equipment 653
13.1 Introduction 653
13.1.1 General Aspects 653
13.1.2 Packaging Characteristics 655
13.1.2.1 Technical Considerations 656
13.1.2.2 Safety Considerations 657
13.1.2.3 Technological Considerations 657
13.1.2.4 Economic Considerations 658
13.1.2.5 Ecological Considerations 658
13.1.3 Packages and Packaging Materials 659
13.1.3.1 Metal 659
13.1.3.2 Glass 660
13.1.3.3 Paper, Carton, and Cardboard 661
13.1.3.4 Plastics 663
13.2 Preparation of Food Containers 665
13.2.1 Unscrambling 665
13.2.2 Fabrication and Forming of Packages 666
13.2.2.1 Metal Containers 667
13.2.2.2 Cartons and Cardboard Packages 667
13.2.2.3 Film-Based Packages 668
Tube Packages 668
Pouch Packages 669
Thermoformed Packages 671
Blow-Mold Packages 673
13.3 Filling Equipment 674
13.3.1 General Characteristics 674
13.3.2 Dosing 678
13.3.3 Product Transfer Systems 680
13.3.4 Valves 682
13.3.5 Weighing 684
13.4 Closing Equipment 687
13.4.1 Closing of Food Packages 687
13.4.2 Glass Closures 688
13.4.3 Closing of Metallic Containers 689
13.4.4 Closing of Plastic Packages 690
13.4.5 Closing of Cartons and Cardboard 691
13.5 Aseptic Packaging 691
13.6 Group Packaging 696
13.6.1 Grouping of Packages 696
13.6.2 Wrapping 696
13.6.3 Palletizing 699
13.7 Cleaning of Packaging Media 701
References 702
Appendix A: Notation and Conversion of Units 705
Appendix B: Selected Thermophysical Properties 710
Appendix C: Control of Food Processing Equipment 716
Appendix D: Food Plant Utilities 718
Industrial Water 718
Steam Boilers 718
Air Moving and Vacuum Equipment 719
Electrical Equipment 719
Waste Treatment 720
Wastewater Treatment 720
Solid Wastes 721
Gas Pollution 722
Appendix E: Manufacturers and Suppliers of Food Equipment 723
Chapter 2: Design and Selection of Food Processing Equipment 723
Cleaning/Sanitazing Equipment 723
Chapter 3: Mechanical Transport and Storage Equipment 725
Pumps, Pneumatic, Hydraulic Transport 725
Mechanical/Pneumatic Conveying 726
Storage Containers, Bins, Silos 729
Chapter 4: Mechanical Processing Equipment 730
Size Reduction Equipment 731
Agglomeration Equipment 735
Chapter 5: Mechanical Separation Equipment 736
Chapter 6: Heat Transfer Equipment 740
Chapter 7: Food Evaporation Equipment 742
Chapter 8: Food Dehydration Equipment 743
Chapter 9: Refrigeration and Freezing Equipment 745
Chapter 10: Thermal Processing Equipment 747
Blanchers 747
Sterilizers and Pasteurizers 747
Chapter 11: Mass Transfer Equipment 749
Distillation Equipment 749
Ion Exchange Equipment 750
Chapter 12: Equipment for Novel Food Processes 751
Membrane Processing 751
Supercritical Extraction Equipment 752
Freeze-Concentration Equipment 753
High-Pressure Processing Equipment 753
Food Irradiation Equipment 754
Chapter 13: Food Packaging Equipment 754
Appendix C 760
Controllers 760
Appendix D 761
Utilities 761
Index 763