Nanosciences and Nanotechnology (eBook)

Foreword to the French Edition 5
Preface to the French Edition 8
Contents 11
Contributors 20
1 Introduction 22
1.1 There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom 22
1.2 A Short History 23
1.3 The Nanoworld 25
1.3.1 Matter on the Scale of a Few Atoms 25
1.3.2 Electricity 27
1.4 How Can We Make Such Tiny Objects? 28
1.4.1 Self-Assembly 30
1.4.2 Nanofabrication 31
1.4.3 Mimicking Nature 32
1.5 What's It All For? 32
1.5.1 Nanomaterials 33
1.5.2 Nanoelectronics 33
1.5.3 Biology, Nanomedicine, and Health 34
1.6 The Debate 34
1.7 Prospects 38
Part I Nanophysics, Nanoelectronics, and Nanophotonics 41
2 Overview of the Field 42
2.1 Is There a Road Map for Nanophysics? The Example of Nanoelectronics 43
2.2 Higher Performance and More Versatile Nanotechnologies 47
2.2.1 Two Complementary Approaches 47
2.2.2 General Features of Fabrication Processes 48
2.2.3 High-Resolution Lithography 49
2.2.4 Etching 50
2.2.5 Atomic Scale Deposition and Surface Treatments 51
2.2.6 Nanoimprinting: Cheap Nanometers per Square Meter 53
2.2.7 Nano `Lego' and New Methods for 3D Assembly 55
2.3 Gaining in Length: From Clusters and Quantum Dots to Nanotubes, Nanowires, and Nanoribbons 56
2.3.1 Fabrication of Nano-Objects 57
2.3.2 Physical Properties of Nano-Objects 63
2.3.3 Lycurgus Cup 65
2.4 Viewing and Manipulating Nanostructures: A Diversity of Microscopes 67
2.4.1 Very High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 68
2.4.2 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy: Imaging and Manipulation 69
2.4.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 71
2.4.4 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy: Observation and Manipulation 72
2.4.5 A Few Remarks 75
2.5 Tomorrow's Nanoelectronics. The Challenge of Zero Consumption 75
2.5.1 MOS Transistors and Current Technology 76
2.5.2 Spin Electronics and Nanomagnetism 80
2.5.3 Quantum Components 86
2.5.4 Components Involving Few Electrons 87
2.5.5 Molecular Electronics 88
2.5.6 Memristors and Neurally-Inspired Architectures 89
2.5.7 Conclusion 90
2.6 Is Nanophotonics an Exact Parallel of Nanoelectronics? 91
2.6.1 Optical Micro- and Nanosources, Lasers, and Controlled Photon Sources 92
2.6.2 Photonic Crystals and Metamaterials 95
2.6.3 Plasmonics for Photovoltaics or Biosensing 97
2.6.4 Telecommunications and Optical Interconnects: Links Between Photonics and Electronics 99
2.6.5 Photonics at Extreme Wavelengths: Ultraviolet and Terahertz 100
2.7 Nanophysics: Genuinely Cross-Disciplinary Physics 102
2.7.1 Nanowires in Electromechanical Microsystems 102
2.7.2 Nanobiotechnology: Convergence Between the Physical Sciences and the Life Sciences 104
2.8 Nanophysics: What Future? 107
References 109
3 Applications I. From Nanometers to Megawatts: Photovoltaic Applications 113
4 Applications II: The Secret Revolution of Magnetic Sensors 120
4.1 Spin Valves and Magnetic Sensors 121
4.2 A First Application: Angle Sensors 122
4.3 An Essential Application for the Automobile 122
4.4 Detecting Very Weak Magnetic Fields 123
4.5 Measuring Currents 124
4.6 Biomagnetism and Ultralow Field MRI 124
4.7 Prospects 126
Reference 126
Part II Nanomaterials and Nanochemistry 127
5 Overview of the Field 128
5.1 Introduction: Nanochemistry 128
5.2 Carbon and Its Nanostates 131
5.2.1 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Zero-Dimensional Structures or Nanoparticles 132
5.2.2 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials. One-Dimensional Structures: Carbon Nanotubes 138
5.2.3 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials. Two-Dimensional Structures: Graphene 141
5.2.4 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials. Three-Dimensional Structures 147
5.3 Nanochemistry in the Service of Nanomaterials: From Molecular to Supramolecular Chemistry 152
5.3.1 Click Chemistry: Molecular Methods 153
5.3.2 Self-Assembly and Supramolecular Chemistry 156
5.4 Functionalisation of Materials 163
5.4.1 The Many Roads to Functionalisation by Chemical Methods in Gas Phase or in Solution 164
5.4.2 Example of Chemical Functionalisation: Self-Assembled Monolayers 165
5.4.3 Electrochemical Functionalisation: Electrografting by Reduction of Diazonium Salts 166
5.5 Different Approaches to Chemical Synthesis of Nanomaterials 168
5.5.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles: Colloidal Solutions of Transition Metals 169
5.5.2 Molecular Imprinting for Nanostructured Materials 177
5.5.3 Multifunctional Hybrid Nanomaterials Produced by Soft Chemistry 178
5.6 Conclusion 186
References 187
6 Applications I: Nanolubricants 190
6.1 Why Nano? 191
6.2 Tribological Properties of Nanoparticles 192
6.3 Mechanism of Lubrication by IF-MeS2 Nanoparticles 193
6.4 Conclusion 196
References 196
7 Applications II: Nanocrystallites in Cement: What Future After Two Thousand Years? 197
7.1 A Material Full of Surprises 197
7.2 The Roman's Were Here 198
7.3 Late Rediscovery and a Burst of Development 199
7.4 Ultra-High Performance Concretes 200
7.5 Toward Nanometric Sizes 201
7.6 More Rigid Nanocrystallites 202
7.7 Progress in Nanocrystallite Thermodynamics 202
7.8 Better Resistance to Wear and Tear 202
7.9 The Beginning of the Twenty-First Century: A Clear Future 203
7.10 The Scientific Challenge 206
7.11 The Industrial Challenge 208
7.12 The Many Remaining Obstacles 209
References 211
8 Applications III. Nano-TiO2 213
8.1 Applications of 250--350nm TiO2 Particles: From Paints to Foods 214
8.2 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (< 100nm): From Anti-UV Films to Elimination of Pollutants
8.2.1 Anti-UV Films 215
8.2.2 Application to Photocatalysis 216
8.2.3 Application to Photovoltaics 216
8.3 Toxicity of Nano-TiO2 218
References 219
Part III Nanobioscience, Nanomedicine, and Nanotoxicology 220
9 Nanobiosciences: New Ideas and Tools for Investigating and Manipulating Living Systems 221
9.1 Nano-Objects as Functional Probes for Nanoscale Exploration of Living Systems 222
9.2 Tracking Single Biomolecules in the Cell 223
9.3 Manipulating Living Systems on the Molecular and Cellular Scales 226
9.4 Nano-Objects for Diagnosis and Therapy: The Prospect of Nanomedicine 228
9.5 Conclusion and Prospects 229
References 230
10 Nanomedicine and Nanotechnology for Medicine 231
10.1 Nanomedicine or Nanotechnology for Medicine? 233
10.2 The Ideal Length Scale in Medicine 234
10.3 The Nanoscale: A Medical Eldorado? 236
10.4 Medical Diagnostics 238
10.4.1 Medical Laboratories 238
10.4.2 Medical Imaging Revisited 241
10.4.3 Smaller and Smaller Implants and Sensors 243
10.4.4 Personalised Medicine 245
10.5 Therapy 246
10.5.1 Drug Nanodroplets and Nanocarriers 247
10.5.2 Drug Pumps 249
10.5.3 Physical Destruction of Tumours 250
10.6 Combining Diagnosis and Therapy: Theranostics 252
10.7 Regenerative Medicine 254
10.7.1 Stem Cells and Cell Therapy 255
10.7.2 Biomaterials 256
10.8 Is Nanotechnology Essential to Medicine? 258
10.9 Nanomedicine and Ethical Questions 259
10.10 Regulating Nanodrugs 260
10.11 A Newly Emerging Industry 261
10.12 The Situation in France Today 262
10.13 Nanomedicine: Evolution or Revolution? 263
References 264
11 Squalenoylation: A Novel Technology for Anticancer and Antibiotic Drugs with Enhanced Activity 265
11.1 Origin of the Concept of Squalenoylation 267
11.2 Coupling Squalene with Drug Molecules 268
11.3 Characteristics and Morphology of the Main Squalene Derivatives 269
11.4 Applications to Cancer Treatment 269
11.4.1 Nanoparticles of Gemcitabine Coupled with Squalene 269
11.4.2 Nanoparticles of Doxorubicin Coupled with Squalene 275
11.4.3 Nanoparticles of SiRNA Coupled with Squalene (SQsiRNA) 276
11.5 Application to Treatment of Infectious Diseases 276
11.5.1 Antiretroviral Nucleoside Analogues 276
11.5.2 Intracellular Antibiotherapy 277
11.6 Application to the Treatment of Neurological Disorders 278
11.7 Magnet Guidance, Imaging, and Theranostics 279
11.8 From Squalenoylation to Terpenoylation 281
11.9 Conclusion 283
References 283
12 Health Impacts of Nanomaterials 285
12.1 Comparing the Health Risks of Ultrafine Atmospheric Particles and Nanoparticles 288
12.2 Nanoparticle Exposure Routes and Potential Health Effects 289
12.2.1 Exposure by the Respiratory Route 289
12.2.2 Exposure by the Cutaneous Route 294
12.2.3 Exposure by the Oral Route 295
12.3 Effects of Nanoparticles on the Cardiovascular System 296
12.4 Effects of Nanoparticles on the Nervous System 296
12.5 Conclusion 297
References 298
13 Environmental Risks of Nanotechnology: A New Challenge? 299
13.1 From Naturally Occurring Nanoparticles to Manufactured Nanoparticles 300
13.1.1 Naturally Occurring Nanoparticles 300
13.1.2 Nanoparticle By-Products of Human and Industrial Activities 301
13.1.3 Manufactured Nanoparticles 301
13.2 The Importance of Contact with Water 303
13.2.1 Do Nanoparticles Solubilise According to the Same Laws as Microparticles? 303
13.2.2 Transition from Hydrophobic to Hydrophilic Properties 304
13.2.3 A Possible Trojan Horse Effect 304
13.2.4 Aggregation Properties Associated with Reactivity at the Water or Solvent Interface 305
13.3 Nanoparticle Transport in Porous Media 309
13.4 Main Nanoparticle Toxicity Mechanisms: Experiments on Living Organisms 312
13.5 Assessing the Risks of Nanomaterials: Toward Predictive Models? 315
13.5.1 Difficulties Inherent in Risk Assessment 315
13.5.2 Experimental Approach to Risk Assessment Integrating Collateral Damage 317
13.5.3 Risk Forecasting Models for Nanomaterials 318
13.6 Concluding Remarks 321
References 321
Part IV Nanotechnology and Society 324
14 Research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: The French Research System 325
14.1 Upstream Research in France 325
14.2 Research and Development in France 328
14.2.1 Organising the Nano Community 328
14.2.2 French Programs and Financing 329
14.3 International Programs 330
14.4 Conclusion 334
15 Training in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 335
15.1 Opportunities for Cross-Disciplinary Training 335
15.2 BMD and the Role of Nano Teaching in France and Worldwide 338
15.3 Professional Opportunites After Nano Training 344
15.4 Outreach: Nanoscience at School 344
15.5 Outreach: From Pupils to the General Public 346
15.6 Prospects 347
References 348
16 Nanotechnology and Industry 349
16.1 The French Industrial Landscape 350
16.1.1 Multisector Applications 350
16.1.2 Some Key Industrial Sectors 353
16.1.3 Industrial Actors in France 355
16.1.4 Zoom on Start-Up Companies 356
16.1.5 But What About the Risks? 357
16.2 The Industrial Situation Worldwide 358
16.2.1 A Growth Market 358
16.2.2 State Involvement 359
16.2.3 French Provisions for the Development of Nanotechnology 362
16.3 By Way of Conclusion 364
References 366
17 Societal Approach to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: When Technology Reflects and Shapes Society 367
17.1 Making the Nanoworld Accessible, Informing, and Regulating: An Ethical, Legal, and Societal Imperative 369
17.1.1 Informing 370
17.1.2 Regulating 374
17.2 The Scope of Social Disruption Induced by Nanotechnology 377
17.2.1 Manipulating the Genome 377
17.2.2 Toward the New Green Deal? 381
17.2.3 Developing Responsible Innovation Upstream of Supply 383
17.2.4 Potential Risks and Gains of Nanotechnology Through Biogenetics 383
17.3 The Systemic Nature of Risks Induced by Nanotechnology 388
17.3.1 The Effects 388
17.3.2 Consequences of the Systemic Nature of Risk on the Assessment of Changes Induced by Nanotechnology 390
17.4 Legal Problems Raised by Nanotechnology 393
17.5 Ethical Questions 394
17.5.1 Need for an International Normative Framework Applicable to Nanotechnology 395
17.5.2 Labelling: Helping the Consumer to Choose in a Complex and Uncertain Situation 396
17.6 The Key Role of Databases and a Better Understanding of Technology 397
17.7 Religion, French Transhumanism, and the Question of Ends 402
17.7.1 Hybrid Immersive Systems, the C Factor of NBIC Convergence, and Freedom of Thought 403
17.7.2 Societal Questions Arising from Potential Uses of Nanoscale Technologies 406
17.8 The Fragile Beginnings of World Governance in the Field of Nanotechnology 407
17.8.1 The Long and Yet Unlikely Path Toward Diplomatic Action 407
17.8.2 When Different Interests Can Coexist on Harmonised Prerequisites 408
17.8.3 What Has Been Achieved by Intergovernmental Relations? 408
17.8.4 A More Mature and More Assertive European Impetus 410
References 413
Glossary 415
Index 426