Autoecology and Ecophysiology of Woody Shrubs and Trees – Fundamental Concepts and their Applications

Professor Ratikanta Maiti, Visiting Scientist, Forest Science Faculty, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon (UANL), Linares, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Dr Maiti is a world renowned botanist and plant physiologist. He has published around 500 research papers and more than 30 books on plant science and crops, and has received various international awards. Dr Humbero Gonzalez Rodriguez, Director, Forest Science Faculty, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon (UANL), Linares, Nuevo Leon, Mexico.Dr Rodriguez is a renowned plant physiology and author of several books. At UANL he works on various aspects of ecophysiology, with special reference to abiotic stress resistance. He has published more than 150 research papers. Dr Natalya Sergeevna Ivanova, Senior Scientist, Botanical Garden of Ural Branch RAS, Professor of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Ekaterinburg, Russia. Dr Ivanova is a botanist and forester, and has researched the diversity of forest types and dynamics of forest vegetation in the Urals (Russia) since 1991. She has studied patterns of natural and anthropogenic dynamics of forest vegetation in the mountains of South and Middle Urals, carrying out complex forest geobotanical researches. In 2012 she was awarded the Medal of the VI Vernadsky for success in the development of national science by the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences.

Preface 11 Chapter 1. Background 12 1.1 A definition of autoecology 13 1.2 A definition of ecophysiology 13 1.3 Environment 13 1.4 Solar radiation 15 1.5 Solar radiation and vegetation 15 1.6 Light requirement of tree species 15 1.7 Photomorphogenesis and photoperiodism 16 1.8 Photosynthesis 16 1.9 Temperature 16 1.10 Water relations 17 1.11 Plant nutrients 18 1.12 Role of nutrients in plant life 19 1.13 Plant factors 20 1.14 Respiration 20 1.15 Phenology and ecology 20 1.16 Effect of drought stress 21 1.17 Ecological plasticity 22 1.18 Productivity 22 1.19 Further reading 23 PART 1 27 Chapter 2. Autoecology 27 2.1 Background 27 2.2 Temperate region 29 2.3 Tropical rainforest 31 2.4 Semiarid and arid lands 34 2.5 Alpine region 35 2.6 Further reading 36 Chapter 3. Vegetation and biodiversity 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Climate 41 3.3 Hydrology 41 3.4 Further reading 45 Chapter 4. A case study: A trip to regions of biodiversity and rainforest in Riviera Maya 46 4.1 Introduction 46 4.2 Visit to territory of dolphins: play ground of dolphins 53 4.3 Zones of pelicans and sea ducks 54 4.4 Zones of sea dives and swimming 54 4.5 Return journey through Sian Ka'an Reserve Forest 54 4.6 Food arrangement 54 4.7 Visit to Chichen Itza - Merida, Yucatan Peninsula 55 4.8 Visit to underground river, named CENOTE 56 4.9 Further reading 58 Chapter 5. Plant traits 60 5.1 Research advances in plant traits 60 5.2 Branching pattern of trees 77 5.3 Tree crown architecture 80 5.4 Leaf traits 84 5.5 Variability in leaf canopy architecture 85 5.6 Variability in leaf traits of 13 native woody species in semiarid regions of Northeastern Mexico 88 5.6.1 Introduction 88 5.6.2 Principal component analysis (PCA) 95 5.6.3 Conclusions 98 5.6.4 Further reading 98 Chapter 6. Leaf traits 101 6.1 Introduction 101 6.2 Leaf anatomy 103 6.3 Taxonomy 103 6.4 Adaption to environments 105 6.5 Leaf surface anatomy 108 6.6 Further reading 110 Chapter 7. Wood characteristics 111 7.1 Introduction 111 7.2 Different types of wood 111 7.3 Wood density of few woody species 112 7.4 Wood anatomy and wood fibres (A contributed by R.K. Maiti, Artemillo Carrillo Parra, Humberto Gonzalez Rodriguez) 112 7.4.1 A brief account is given here on the structure, function, development 113 7.4.2 Xylem structure and variability 113 7.4.3 Evolution of secondary xylem 114 7.4.4 Wood fibres 120 7.4.5 Physical and mechanical properties 122 7.4.6 Guide to study wood anatomy: 123 7.4.7 General description of wood anatomy 125 7.4.8 Characterization of wood fibres of shrubs and tree species of the Tamaulipan Thornscrub, northeastern Mexico 134 7.4.8.1 Background 134 7.4.8.2 Methodology 135 7.4.8.3 Results 136 7.4.8.4 Discussion 143 7.4.8.5 Conclusions and research needs 144 7.4.8.5 Further reading 144 Chapter 8. Phenology 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Reproductive phenology (flowering and fruiting) of ten woody plants, Northeastern Mexico 149 8.2.1 Methodology 149 8.2.1.1 Study area 149 8.2.1.2 Vegetation of the study area 149 8.2.1.3 Selection of specimens 150 8.2.1.4 Study on phenology 151 8.2.1.5 Environmental variables 152 8.2.1.6 Results and discussion 152 8.2.1.7 Conclusions 160 8.2.1.8 Further reading 161 Chapter 9. Phenology, morphology and variability in pollen viability of four woody species (Cordia boissieri, Parkinsonia texana, Parkinsonia aculeate and Leucophyllum frutescens) exposed to environmental temperature, northeastern Mexico 164 9.1 Background 164 9.2 Pollen viability 165 9.3 Methodology 167 9.4 Results and discusion 168 9.4.1 Phenology 168 9.4.2 Pollen morphology 168 9.4.3 Pollen viability 170 9.5 Conclusions 171 9.6 Further reading 172 Chapter 10. Pollen biology and plant productivity: A review 174 10.1 Introduction 174 10.2 Materials, methods and scope of the study 177 10.3 Elaboration of the review 177 10.4 Pollen morphology 178 10.5 Pollen dispersal 182 10.6 Pollen germination 183 10.7 Pollen load, pollination and seed production 187 10.8 Pollen tube growth 190 10.9 Pollen viability 191 10.10 Effects of nitrogen di-oxide (NO2) 193 10.11 Effects of temperature 194 10.12 Other factors 196 10.13 Storage of pollen 196 10.14 Seed production 197 10.15 Conclusions 200 10.16 Further reading 200 Chapter 11. Seed characteristics 205 11.1 Introduction 205 11.2 Seed productivity in trees and shrubs 205 11.3 Further reading 208 Chapter 12. Tree mortality 210 12.1 Introduction 210 12.2 Further reading 216 Chapter 13. Plant traits related to the productivity of trees 217 13.1 Background 217 13.2 Basal diameter 217 13.2.1 Worked example 221 13.3 Plant height 221 13.4 Bole diameter growth of trees 223 13.5 Regeneration 224 13.6 Further reading 228 PART 2. 230 Chapter 14. Ecophysiology 230 14.1 Background 230 14.2 Tropical rainforest 231 14.3 Temperate forest 233 14.4 Alpine forest 237 14.5 Further reading 238 Chapter 15. Research advances on plant ecophysiology 240 15.1 Leaf pigments 240 15.2 Background 240 15.3 Methodology 242 15.3.1 Determinations of chlorophyll and carotenoids 242 15.4 Results 243 15.5 Discussion 245 15.6 Conclusions and future research 247 15.7 Further reading 247 Chapter 16. Carbon capture, carbon sequestration and carbon fixation 250 16.1 Introduction 250 16.2 Examples of the role of lower plants in carbon fixation 250 16.3 Conclusions and future research 258 16.4 Factors affecting the productivity of forest 258 16.4.1 Transpiration 258 16.4.2 Photosynthesis and plant productivity 261 16.4.3 Respiration 266 16.4.4 Response of trees to abiotic stresses and its growth 269 16.5 Further reading 272 Chapter 17. Plant nutrients 275 17.1 Background 275 17.2 Micro and macronutrient contents and carbon sequestration in ten native shrubs and trees in norteastern Mexico 275 17.3 Methodology 280 17.3.1 Chemical analysis 281 17.4 Results 281 17.5 Discussion 286 17.6 Conclusions and future studies 289 17.7 Research needs on conservation of native trees and carbon sequestration 289 17.8 Further reading 294 Chapter 18. Litterfal and forest productivity 297 18.1 Litterfall studies in northeastern Mexico 297 18.2 Methodology 298 18.2.1 Chemical analyses 299 18.3 Results and discussion 299 18.4 Further reading 302 Chapter 19. Nutrient cycling 304 19.1 Background 304 19.2 Further reading 306 Chapter 20. Plant water relations and forest productivity 308 20.1 Background 308 20.2 Plant water relation studies in northeastren Mexico 309 20.3 Methodology 310 20.4 Results and discussion 311 20.5 Conclusions and research needs 315 20.6 Soil water potential 315 20.7 Further reading 320 Chapter 21. Cold tolerance of trees 324 21.1 Studies on cold tolerance of trees 324 21.2 Further reading 328 Chapter 22. Heat stress tolerance of trees 330 22.1 Studies on heat stress tolerance of trees 330 22.2 Further reading 333 Chapter 23. Seed characteristics, seed dormancy, germination and plant propagation 335 23.1 Seed dormancy and germination 335 23.1.1 Techniques for breaking seed dormancy 335 23.2 Seed scarification 336 23.3 Seed stratification 336 23.4 Further reading 343 Chapter 24. Root growth 345 24.1 Root system of trees 345 24.2 Root distribution 346 24.3 Root depth 346 24.5 Root spread 347 24.6 Factors affecting root distribution 347 24.7 Tree root structure and function 347 24.8 Root growth 348 24.9 Organic rich soils 350 24.10 Conclusion and research needs 352 24.11 Further reading 352 Chapter 25. Features of Boreal forest of Russia: A special study 353 25.1 Distribution and general characteristics of the boreal forests 353 25.2 The main forest-forming tree species of the boreal forest 354 25.3 Reforestation of the boreal forest 355 25.4 Field study 356 25.5 Methodological approaches and methods 357 25.5.1 Natural regeneration of Picea obovata Ledeb. on the southern border of the range (the mountain forests of the Southern Urals) 359 25.5.1.1 Picea obovata Ledeb. regrowth under the canopy of dark-coniferous forests 360 25.5.1.2 Picea obovata Ledeb. regrowth under the canopy of birch and aspen 363 25.6 The main forest types of the Middle Urals 367 25.6.1 Features of natural and artificial regeneration of Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea obovata Ledeb. on clear-cuts in the Zauralsky (Transuralian) hilly piedmont province of the Middle Urals 368 25.6.2 Germination and seedling growth of Pinus sylvestris L., Picea obovata Ledeb, Larix sibirica Ledeb. on soil of different types of boreal forests 371 25.6.2.1 Forest soil after clear-cuttings 373 25.6.2.2 Dependence of germination energy and the germination of woody plants on soil conditions 374 25.7 Conclusions 382 25.8 Further reading 383 Chapter 26. Case study: Autoecology, biodiversity and as adaptive characteristics of Prosopis in the Arizona region: An overview 387 26.1 Introduction 387 26.2 Medicinal value 388 26.3 Plant characteristics 389 26.4 Control of mesquites 389 26.5 Adaptative traits of mesquites to the desert environment 390 26.6 Physiological mechanism of resistance 391 26.7 Biodiversity 392 26.8 Materials and methods 394 26.9 Results and discussion 394 26.9.1 Plant characteristics 394 26.9.2 Plant architecture 395 26.9.3 Crown shape 395 26.9.4 Branching pattern 395 26.9.5 Habitat 396 26.9.6 Biodiversity 396 26.9.7 Prosopis poses as obnoxious weed 399 26.9.8 Sillent valley and uphills of Prosopis forest 400 26.10 Conclusions and research needs 402 26.11 Further reading 403