Biotechnology in Flavor Production, 2e

Dr Daphna Havkin-Frenkel, Department of Plant Pathology and Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey and Director of Research and Development, Bakto Flavors LLC, New Jersey. Dr Nativ Dudai, Researcher, Newe Ya'ar Research Center, The Agricultural Research Organization of Israel, Ramat Yishay, Israel.

Contributors xi Preface xv Chapter 1 The flavor of citrus fruit 1 Ron Porat, Sophie Deterre, Pierre Giampaoli and Anne Plotto Introduction 1 Taste components of citrus fruit 3 Sugars 5 Acids 6 Bitter compounds 6 Aroma compounds of citrus fruit 8 Terpene hydrocarbons 9 Aldehydes 10 Alcohols 11 Esters 11 Ketones 11 Other volatiles 12 Citrus genes involved in flavor production 12 The unique flavor of different citrus species 13 The flavor of oranges 14 The flavor of mandarins 14 The flavor of grapefruit 15 The flavor of lemons 16 Accumulation of off-flavors in fresh citrus fruit during postharvest storage 17 Flavor of citrus essential oils 19 Acknowledgments 24 References 24 Chapter 2 Aroma as a factor in the breeding process of fresh herbs the case of basil 32 Nativ Dudai and Faith C. Belanger The importance of selecting for aroma in breeding of aromatic plants 32 The importance of genetic factors regarding the essential oil composition in aromatic plants 32 Sweet basil and the Ocimum genus 34 Uses of sweet basil 34 The chemistry of the aroma factors of plants: the essential oil 36 Essential oil profiles of common commercial basil varieties 36 Comparison of chemical analysis methods 41 Variation of the volatile compound composition within the plant 43 Variation of aroma compounds within cultivars and the potential for selection 45 Biosynthetic pathways of basil aroma components 47 Inheritance of aroma compounds in basil 50 Interspecific hybridization among Ocimum species 52 Applications of biotechnology-based approaches to modification of basil aroma 53 References 54 Chapter 3 Novel yeast strains as tools for adjusting the flavor of fermented beverages to market specifications 62 Jan H. Swiegers, Sofie M.G. Saerens and Isak S. Pretorius Introduction 62 Wine 63 Beer 63 Sake 64 Wine, beer, and sake yeasts 64 Wine yeasts 65 Beer yeasts 67 Sake yeasts 67 Acids 69 Non-volatile acids 69 Volatile acids 72 Alcohols 74 Ethanol 74 Glycerol 76 Higher alcohols 78 Esters 83 Carbonyl compounds 91 Acetaldehyde 91 Diacetyl 93 Volatile phenols 95 Sulfur compounds 98 Sulfides 98 Mercaptans 102 Thiols 102 Monoterpenoids 106 Conclusion 109 References 109 Chapter 4 Biotechnology of flavor formation in fermented dairy products 133 Balasubramanian Ganesan and Bart C. Weimer Introduction 133 Biochemistry of dairy fermentations 135 Biotechnology and flavor 138 Flavor production from bacteria 147 Comparative genomics of flavor production 149 Expression and metabolite analysis 154 Predictive bioinformatics 155 Non-culturable lactococci 156 Translation of omics to biotechnology 156 Conclusion 158 References 158 Chapter 5 Biotechnological production of vanillin 165 Daphna Havkin-Frenkel and Faith C. Belanger Introduction 165 Biosynthesis of vanillin 168 Natural occurrence of vanillin 168 Site of vanillin production in vanilla beans 168 Vanillin biosynthetic pathway in Vanilla planifolia 170 Production of vanillin by biotechnology 171 Introduction 171 Use of microorganisms 172 Use of plant tissue culture 177 Use of enzymes 177 Use of physical and mild chemistry methods 181 Synthetic vanillin 182 Vanillin from vanilla beans 182 Regulations 183 Conclusions and future outlook 185 References 186 Chapter 6 Plant cell culture as a source of valuable chemicals 193 Chee-Kok Chin Introduction 193 Establishment of callus culture 194 Initiation and maintenance of cell culture 197 Production of valuable chemicals by cultured plant cells 198 Metabolic engineering to improve chemical production 204 Concluding remarks 205 References 205 Chapter 7 Increasing the methional content in potato through biotechnology 211 Rong Di Flavor compound methional in foods 211 Formation of methional 212 Synthesis of Met in plants 213 Biotechnology to enhance Met and methional 214 References 217 Chapter 8 Flavor development in rice 221 Louis M.T. Bradbury, Robert J. Henry and Daniel L.E. Waters Introduction 221 Old flavors of rice 221 Rice texture 223 Fragrant rice 224 The chemistry of rice fragrance 227 The genetics of rice fragrance 228 BAD enzymes and 2AP synthesis 233 The future 237 References 237 Chapter 9 Tomato aroma: biochemistry and biotechnology 243 Rachel Davidovich-Rikanati, Yaron Sitrit, Yaakov Tadmor, Eran Pichersky, Natalia Dudareva and Efraim Lewinsohn The major aroma impact volatiles in tomato and their biosynthetic pathways 243 Biosynthesis of tomato volatiles 244 Degradation of fatty acids 244 Volatiles derived from amino acids 246 Terpenes 248 Carotenoid pigmentation affects the flavor and volatile composition of tomato fruit 250 Genetic engineering of tomato aroma 253 Contribution of omics to improving our understanding of aroma biosynthesis and perception 256 Conclusion 258 Acknowledgment 258 References 258 Chapter 10 Breeding and biotechnology for flavor development in apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) 264 Susan K. Brown Quality 265 Apple volatiles 265 Ester compounds and ester biosynthesis 266 Measurement techniques 266 Varietal and developmental differences 267 Effect of storage 268 Effect of processing 269 Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 270 Hypoxia 270 Gene isolation 271 Genetic studies, linkage maps, and marker-assisted selection 271 ESTs 272 Transgenic approaches 273 Ethylene production and softening (ACS ACO) 274 Consumer perceptions and sensory testing 274 References 275 Chapter 11 Biosynthesis and perception of melon aroma 281 Itay Gonda, Yosef Burger, Arthur A. Schaffer, Mwafaq Ibdah, Ya akov Tadmor, Nurit Katzir, Aaron Fait and Efraim Lewinsohn Introduction 281 Volatile composition of melon fruit 283 Odor perception 288 Biosynthesis of melon aroma volatiles 292 Terpenoids 292 Fatty acid-derived volatile aldehydes 293 Amino acid-derived aroma compounds 294 Formation of volatile alcohols from volatile aldehydes 296 Formation of volatile esters from volatile alcohols 297 The interphase between volatile and non-volatile metabolites 298 Changes of volatile profiles in transgenic melons inhibited in ethylene production 299 Concluding remarks 299 References 300 Index 307