SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (eBook)

About the Editor-in-Chief: Morgan Hurley is a project director for Aon Fire Protection Engineering. He also serves as adjunct faculty at the University of Maryland and California Polytechnic University. He holds bachelors and masters degrees in fire protection engineering, is a licensed professional engineer and he is a Fellow of the Society of Fire Protection Engineers. About the Society: SFPE’s mission is to define, develop and advance the use of engineering best practices; expand the scientific and technical knowledge base; and educate the global fire safety community, in order to reduce fire risk.

Cover 1
978-1-4939-2565-0_BookFrontmatter_OnlinePDF 2
Foreword 7
Acknowledgment of Past Authors 7
Metrication 11
Contents 12
978-1-4939-2565-0_1_OnlinePDF 18
1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 18
Fluid Properties 18
Density 18
Viscosity 18
Specific Heat 19
Conduction Coefficient 19
Diffusion Coefficient 19
Dimensionless Groups of Fluid Properties 19
State Properties 20
Pressure 20
Temperature 20
Internal Energy 20
Enthalpy 20
Entropy 20
Equation of State 20
Liquids 20
Gases: Ideal Gas Law 20
Mixtures 21
Conservation Equations 21
Conservation of Mass-Continuity Equation 21
Total Momentum 23
Energy 24
Hydrostatics 26
Hydrostatics 26
Buoyancy 26
Scaling Laws-Dimensionless Flow Numbers 27
Dimensionless Flow Numbers 27
Scaling 28
Turbulence 29
Reynolds Number 29
Reynolds Averaging 30
Turbulence Modeling 32
Boundary Layers-External Flows 33
Internal Flows-Flows in Pipes-Pressure Losses 35
Bernoulli Equation 38
Wind 39
Natural Wind Characteristics 39
Interaction of Wind with Buildings 40
Headings0002492751 41
References 41
978-1-4939-2565-0_2_OnlinePDF 42
2: Conduction of Heat in Solids 42
Introduction 42
Energy Conservation 42
Thermodynamic Properties 43
Lumped Thermal Analysis 43
Fourier´s Law of Conduction 44
Thermal Conductivity 44
Homogeneous Systems 45
Examples of Homogenous Materials 45
Composite Systems 46
Examples of Composite Materials 46
Heat Equation Formulations 47
Steady One Dimensional Models 47
Cylindrical Shells 47
Fin Approximation 48
Simple 1D Composite Systems 49
Steady-Multidimensional Models 50
Boundary Condition Approximations and Assumptions 50
Transient One Dimensional Models 50
Thermally Thick and Thin Approximations 50
Transient Multidimensional Models 51
Analytical Solutions and Examples 51
Steady-One Dimensional Examples 52
Critical Thickness of Insulation 52
Fin Model of a Beam Extending Between Two Walls 53
Flame Temperature Thermocouple Measurement 54
Steady Multidimensional Example 55
Separation of Variables Applied to Two Dimensional Fin 55
Transient Lumped Examples with Time Dependent Forcing 57
Laplace Transform Methods 57
Duhamel Integral Methods 58
Transient Semi-infinite (Thermally Thick) One-Dimensional Examples 59
Transient Multidimensional Examples 61
Overview of Computational Issues in Conduction 62
Finite Difference Approximations 63
Finite Volume Approximation 63
Finite Element Approximations 64
Inverse Conduction Heat Transfer Approximations and Examples 65
References 68
978-1-4939-2565-0_3_OnlinePDF 70
3: Convection Heat Transfer 70
Introduction 70
Concepts and Basic Relations 70
Basic Laws of Molecular Transfer 71
Relationship of Basic Laws to Transfer Coefficients 74
Conservation Equations for Convection Heat Transfer 75
The Boundary Layer Concept 82
Integral Solution Methods 92
Forced Flow Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 92
Integral Solution for the Thermal Laminar Boundary Layer 94
Integral Solution for a Heated Vertical Plate (Laminar Free Convection) 94
Integral Conservation Equations 94
Simultaneous Solution of the Equations 95
Complications in Practical Problems 97
Empirical Relations of Convection Heat Transfer 103
Applications 111
Nomenclature 116
Headings0002492753 116
References 117
978-1-4939-2565-0_4_OnlinePDF 119
4: Radiation Heat Transfer 119
Introduction 119
Basic Concepts 119
The Nature of Thermal Radiation 119
Spectral Distribution of Radiation from a Perfect Emitter 121
Radiant Intensity and Heat Flux 123
Emission, Irradiation, and Radiosity 124
Emission 124
Irradiation 126
Radiosity 126
Surface Properties 126
Emissivity 127
Absorptivity 127
Reflectivity 133
Transmissivity 136
Kirchhoff's Law: Relation Between Emissivity and Absorptivity 136
Radiant Heat Transfer in Nonparticipating Media 137
View Factors 137
Gray Diffuse Surfaces 139
Thermal Radiation in Participating Media 140
The Equation of Transfer 140
Spectral Emissivity and Absorptivity 140
Planck and Rosseland Mean Absorption Coefficients 141
Mean Beam Length for Homogeneous Gas Bodies 142
Thermal Radiation Properties of Combustion Products 143
Radiation Properties of Gases 143
Radiation Properties of Soot 145
Radiation Properties of Gas-Soot Mixtures 146
Application to Flame and Fire 148
Heat Flux Calculation from a Flame 148
Heat Flux Calculation from a Smoke Layer 150
Nomenclature 152
Headings0002492754 152
References 153
978-1-4939-2565-0_5_OnlinePDF 155
5: Thermochemistry 155
Introduction 155
The First Law of Thermodynamics 155
Internal Energy 155
Enthalpy 156
Specific Heat 157
Heats of Combustion 157
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 157
Measurement of Heats of Combustion 158
Heats of Formation 161
Rate of Heat Release in Fires 162
Calculation of Adiabatic Flame Temperatures 164
Headings0002492755 167
References 167
978-1-4939-2565-0_6_OnlinePDF 168
6: Chemical Equilibrium 168
Introduction 168
The Chemical Equilibrium Constant 168
Generalized Definition of Equilibrium Constant 170
Simultaneous Equilibria 170
The Quantification of Equilibrium Constants 171
Carbon Formation in Oxygen-Deficient Systems 174
Departure from Equilibrium 175
Sample Problems 175
Computer Programs for Chemical Equilibrium Calculations 182
Nomenclature 183
References 183
978-1-4939-2565-0_7_OnlinePDF 184
7: Thermal Decomposition of Polymeric Materials 184
Introduction 184
Polymeric Materials 184
Polymer Classification 184
Natural, Synthetic, Semi-natural and Biobased 184
Chemical Composition of the Repeat Units 185
Chemistry of Polymerisation 185
Thermoplastics and Thermosets 187
Molecular Mass or Polymer Chain Length 187
Consequences of High Molar Mass 187
Physical Properties 188
Structural Physical and Decomposition Property Data 189
Polymers and Fire 189
Polymer Crystallinity 194
Thermal Response Characteristics of Polymers 195
Physical Transitions 195
Glass Transition Temperature 196
Melting 196
Bubble Formation 198
Chemical Transformations 198
Influence of Oxygen 198
Influence of Chemical Structure on Thermal Stability 199
Chain Branching 199
Double Bonds 200
Aromatics in Backbone 200
Molecular Weight 200
Cross-Linking 200
Oxygen in Backbone 200
Interaction of Chemical and Physical Processes 200
Thermal Analysis: Methods for Quantifying the Thermal Response of Polymers 200
Thermogravimetric Analysis 201
Differential Thermal Analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry 203
Crucibles for DSC and DTA 205
Modulated Temperature DSC (MTDSC) 205
Simultaneous Thermal Analysis 205
Thermomechanical Analysis and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 206
Rheology 206
The Five Regions of Viscoelastic Behaviour 207
Techniques Involving Chemical Analysis of Decomposition Products 208
Evolved Gas Analysis (EGA) 208
Thermal Analysis with Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis 208
Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry 209
Thermal Volatilization Analysis 211
Microscale Combustion Calorimetry 211
Choice of Atmosphere and Heating Rate in Thermal Analysis 212
Char and Residue Analysis 213
Decomposition of Polymers 214
Decomposition Mechanisms 214
Thermodynamics of Polymer Decomposition 215
Kinetics of Polymer Decomposition 216
Gas and Solution Phase Kinetics 216
Solid Phase Kinetics 217
Modelling Polymer Decomposition and Pyrolysis 219
Experimental Determination of Kinetic Parameters 220
Mathematical Models of Polymer Decomposition Kinetics 220
Solid Phase Mechanisms 221
Isothermal Model-Fitting Method (Conventional Method) 222
Non-isothermal Model Fitting Analytical Methods 223
Direct Differential Method 223
Freeman-Carroll Method 223
Coats-Redfern Method 223
Kissinger Method 223
Model-Free/Isoconversional Methods 224
Standard Isoconversional Method 224
Ozawa, Flynn and Wall (OFW) Method 224
Vyazovkin´s Methods 224
Computational Models of Polymer Decomposition 226
Computational Modelling of Polymer Combustion 228
Behaviour of Individual Polymers 229
Thermoplastics 229
Polyethylene 229
Polypropylene 231
Polystyrene PS 231
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 232
Polycarbonates 232
Aliphatic Polyamides 233
Polyesters, Polyethylene Terephthalate and Polybutylene Terephthalate 233
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 234
Halogenated Polymers 235
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 235
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 237
Elastomers 237
Silicone Polymers 237
Polyisoprenes and Other Rubbers 237
Thermosetting Polymers 239
Epoxy Resins 239
Polyurethanes 241
Phenolic Resins 241
Polymers with High Thermal Stability 242
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 242
Polyimide (PI) 243
Polyetherimide (PEI) 243
Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS) 243
Natural Polymers 244
Polysaccharides 244
Proteins 244
Biopolymers 245
Cellulose Based 245
Polyesters Polylactic Acid (PLA), Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 245
Fire Retardants 246
Drivers in Fire Retardant Development 246
Fire Retardant Strategies 246
Physical Action 248
Chemical Action 248
Additive vs Reactive Fire Retardants 248
Halogenated Flame Retardants 249
Mode of Action of Halogenated Flame Retardants 249
Metal Hydroxide and Carbonate Fillers 250
Burning Behaviour of Polymeric Materials 251
Quantifying Fire Behaviour 251
Ignitability 251
Ease of Extinction Tests 253
UL-94 `Bunsen Burner´ Test IEC 60695-11-10 253
Limiting Oxygen Index 254
Bench-Scale Measurement of Heat Release 255
The Cone Calorimeter 255
Heat Release Curves from Cone Calorimetry 256
Microscale Measurement of Heat Release 256
Influence of Physical Properties on Flammability 257
Char Formation 258
Example: Calculation of Char Forming Tendency (CFT) 260
Calculating Polymer Flammability from Molar Group Contributions 260
Example: Calculating Heat Release Capacity (HRC) 261
Conclusions 261
References 264
978-1-4939-2565-0_8_OnlinePDF 272
8: Structural Mechanics 272
Introduction 272
Philosophy of Structural Design 272
Structural Design at Ambient Temperature 273
Loads and Load Combinations 273
Working Stress Design 274
Limit States Design 275
Serviceability Limit States 276
Material or Member Resistance Factors 276
Safety Index 276
Structural Design Under Fire Conditions 277
Philosophy and Goals 277
Structural Fire Design Loads and Load Combinations 278
Structural Mechanics 278
Statics 278
Static Equilibrium and Reaction Forces 279
Internal Forces 279
Strength of Simple Structural Elements 281
Tension Members (Cables and Ties) 281
Compression Members (Columns and Struts) 282
Flexural Elements (Joists, Beams and Girders) 285
Lateral Instability of Beams 287
Continuity and Full Structure Response 287
Continuous Beams 287
Frames 287
Slabs and Shells (Membrane Actions) 290
Thermally-Induced Loading 291
Other Considerations 291
Connections 292
Disproportionate Collapse 292
Summary 292
Nomenclature 292
References 293
978-1-4939-2565-0_9_OnlinePDF 294
9: Properties of Building Materials 294
Introduction 294
Material Characteristics 294
Classification 294
Porosity and Moisture Sorption 295
Mixture Rules 296
Survey of Building Materials 296
Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures 297
Reference Condition 298
Mechanical Properties 298
Stress-Strain Relationships 298
Modulus of Elasticity, Yield Strength, Ultimate Strength 298
Creep 299
Thermal Properties 301
Thermal Expansion 301
Mass Loss 301
Density, Porosity 302
Specific Heat 303
Thermal Conductivity 304
Thermal Diffusivity 305
Special (Material-Specific) Properties 305
Critical Temperature 305
Spalling 306
Charring 307
Sources of Information 308
Steel 308
Concrete 313
Normal-Strength Concrete 313
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 318
High-Strength Concrete 320
Brick 322
Wood 323
Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 326
Gypsum 331
Insulation 332
Other Miscellaneous Materials 336
Summary 336
Headings0002492759 337
References 337
978-1-4939-2565-0_10_OnlinePDF 342
10: Chemical Kinetics and Fire 342
Introduction 342
Fundamentals 345
Radical Reactions 345
Law of Mass Action 346
Global vs. Elementary Rates 347
Type of Reactions 348
Bimolecular Reactions 348
Unimolecular Reactions 348
Termolecular Reactions 349
Units of Reaction Rate Constant 349
Arrhenius Rate Expression 349
Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates 350
Effect of Pressure on Reaction Rates 352
Important Concepts in Hydrocarbon Combustion Kinetics 352
Ignition 352
Competition Between Reactions 353
Initiation Reactions: Thermal Decomposition vs. Oxidation 354
Relative Rates of Oxidation and Degradation of the Primary Fuel Radical 354
Relative Rates of Reaction of OH with CO vs. Hydrocarbon 356
H-Atom Reaction with O2 vs. Reaction with Fuel 357
Flame Configuration/Structure Effects on Chemistry 358
Super Equilibrium 359
Role of Trace Species 361
Moisture in CO Oxidation 361
Flame Inhibition by Iron-Containing Compounds 362
Flame Inhibition by Bromine-Containing Compounds 362
Chemical Kinetic Models 363
Overview 363
Databases 364
Role of Gas-Phase Kinetics in Some Fire Problems 364
Understanding Standard Fire Tests Through Kinetic Modeling: The Cup Burner Test 364
References 366
978-1-4939-2565-0_11_OnlinePDF 367
11: Diffusion Flames 367
The Diffusion Coefficient 367
Structure of Diffusion Flame 369
Diffusion Flame Theory 371
Species Conservation 372
Energy Conservation 372
Modified Species Conservation Equations 372
Modified Energy Conservation Equation 372
Diffusion Flame Location 373
Assumptions 373
Conservation Equations 373
Comments on the Formulation and Analysis 375
Property Estimation 375
Solved Example 376
Part 1: Mixture Fraction 376
Part 2: Flame Location 376
Part 3 and 4: Profiles of Oxygen, Fuel and Temperature 377
Final Note 378
Mass Burning Rate 378
Diffusion Flame Height 381
Turbulent Diffusion Flames 383
Flame Extinction 386
Final Comments and Conclusions 388
References 388
978-1-4939-2565-0_12_OnlinePDF 390
12: Fundamentals of Premixed Flames 390
Rankine-Hugoniot Relations - Infinitely Thin Flames 391
Flame Structure and the Flame Speed 393
Mallard and Le Chatelier 394
Flame Speed Measurements 395
Parameters Affecting the Laminar Flame Speed 398
Fuel Type and Equivalence Ratio 398
Upstream Temperature 400
Inert Type and Oxygen Percentage 400
Pressure 402
Fuel Mixture 402
Flame Instabilities and Acceleration 403
Flame Structure and Detailed Chemistry of Premixed Flames 403
Numerical Simulations of Premixed Flames 405
Other Aspects Related to Premixed Flames 405
Adiabatic Flame Temperature for Constant Pressure Versus Constant Volume Combustion 405
Ignition 406
Turbulence 406
Tube Flames 406
Detonation 407
The Role of Premixed Flames in Fire Safety Engineering 407
References 408
978-1-4939-2565-0_13_OnlinePDF 413
13: Fire Plumes, Flame Height, and Air Entrainment 413
Introduction 413
Note on Numerical Modeling 414
Fire Plume Features 414
Calculation Methods 416
Flame Heights 416
Plume Temperatures and Velocities 422
Plumes in Temperature-Stratified Ambients 427
Virtual Origin 428
Entrainment 431
Illustration 434
Additional Plume and Flame Topics 437
Flame Intermittency Length Scale 437
Flame Pulsations 438
Rise of Plume Front 438
Wall/Corner Effects 438
Windblown Flames 439
Jet Flames in Horizontal Discharge 439
Research Needs 440
Data Sources 441
Nomenclature 441
References 442
978-1-4939-2565-0_14_OnlinePDF 446
14: Ceiling Jet Flows 446
Introduction 446
Steady Flow Under Horizontal, Unconfined Ceilings 446
Weak Plume-Driven Flow Field 446
Strong Plume-Driven Flow Field 454
Convective Heat Transfer to Horizontal Unconfined Ceilings 455
Weak Plume Impingement (Turning) Region 455
Ceiling Jet Region 456
Sloped Ceilings 456
Time-Dependent Fires 458
Quasi-Steady Assumption 458
Power-Law Fire Growth 459
Confined Ceilings 462
Channel Configuration 462
Corner Configuration with Strong Plumes 463
General Enclosure Configurations 464
Ceiling Jet Development 466
Summary 468
Nomenclature 468
Superscripts 468
References 469
978-1-4939-2565-0_15_OnlinePDF 472
15: Vent Flows 472
Introduction 472
Calculation Methods for Nonbuoyant Flows 472
Buoyant Flows Through Vertical Vents 474
Measuring Vent Flows in a Fire Experiment 476
Buoyant Flows Through Horizontal Vents 483
Accuracy of Vent Flow Calculations 489
Vents as Part of the Building Flow Network 491
Room Pressure 491
General Equation to Control Room Pressure 491
Equation to Control Pressure at Steady State 494
Numerical Computation of Room Pressure 497
Summary 500
Headings0002492765 501
References 501
978-1-4939-2565-0_16_OnlinePDF 503
16: Effect of Combustion Conditions on Species Production 503
Introduction 503
Basic Concepts 504
Species Yields 505
Equivalence Ratio 506
Species Production Within Fire Compartments 510
Hood Experiments 510
Compartment Fire Experiments 516
Chemical Kinetics 522
Fire Plume Effects 525
Transient Conditions 526
Species Transport to Adjacent Spaces 527
General Effects of Burning Outside the Compartment 528
Burning in Unconfined Adjacent Areas 529
Burning in Confined Adjacent Areas 529
Predicting Species Levels 532
Effects of Oxygen-Deficient Smoke Layers in Adjacent Spaces 534
Other Considerations 536
Engineering Methodology 537
Headings0002492766 543
References 544
978-1-4939-2565-0_17_OnlinePDF 546
17: Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames 546
Introduction 546
Premixed Combustion 546
Predicting Lower Flammable Limits of Mixtures of Flammable Gases (Le Chatelier´s Rule) 548
Critical Adiabatic Flame Temperature at the Lower Flammable Limit 553
Flammability Diagrams 555
Ignition Energies and Quenching Diameters 561
Dusts and Mists 561
Diffusion Flame Limits 562
Oxygen Index Test Method 568
Headings0002492767 568
References 568
978-1-4939-2565-0_18_OnlinePDF 571
18: Ignition of Liquids 571
Introduction 571
Vaporization of Liquids 572
Calculation of Vapor Pressure 575
Vapor Pressure of Liquid Blends 579
Effect of Atmospheric Pressure on Flashpoint 581
Measurement of Flashpoint and Firepoint 582
Closed Cup Flashpoints 582
Open Cup Flashpoints and Firepoints 584
Classification of Liquid Fuels 587
Sustained Ignition of Liquids 589
Autoignition 590
Ignition of Liquids in Porous Materials 592
Summary 595
References 595
978-1-4939-2565-0_19_OnlinePDF 598
19: Smoldering Combustion 598
Introduction 598
Smoldering vs. Flaming Combustion 598
General Characteristics of Smoldering Combustion 599
Ignition 602
Radiant Ignition 602
Conductive Ignition 603
Ignition by Embers 604
Self-Heating Ignition 605
Size Effects and Ignition 605
Smoldering Spread 606
Smoldering Kinetics 608
Suppression 612
Gas Emissions 612
Smoldering Wildland Fires 613
Coal Seam Fires 615
Transition to Flaming 615
Concluding Remarks 617
References 618
978-1-4939-2565-0_20_OnlinePDF 621
20: Spontaneous Combustion and Self-Heating 621
Introduction 621
The Literature 624
Concept of Criticality 624
The Semenov (Well-Stirred) Theory of Thermal Ignition 628
Assumptions of the Semenov Theory 628
Inclusion of Fuel Consumption 631
Extension to Complex Chemistry and CSTRs 632
Complex Chemistry 632
CSTRs and Thermal Runaway 632
The Frank-Kamenetskii Theory of Criticality 633
Experimental Testing Methods 635
Special Cases Requiring Correction 637
Presence of Water 637
Parallel Reactions 637
Finite Biot Number 639
Times to Ignition (Induction Periods) 640
Theoretical Treatment 640
Other, Largely Chemically Kinetic, Difficulties 641
Investigation of Cause of Possible Spontaneous Ignition Fires 642
The Aftermath 643
Case Histories and Examples 644
Cottonseed Meal: Living Dangerously 644
Flaming Instant Noodles 644
Bagasse Storage: Some Complex Chemistry 644
Milk Powder: A Numerical Example 645
Technical and Legal Matters 646
SADT 646
ASTM E698-01 647
Nomenclature 647
References 648
978-1-4939-2565-0_21_OnlinePDF 650
21: Flaming Ignition of Solid Fuels 650
Introduction 650
The Process of Ignition 651
The Solid Phase 651
Pyrolysis Process 652
The Production of Gaseous Fuel 654
Charring 656
The Thermal Depth (epsiT) 656
The Pyrolysis (epsiP) and Charring Depths (epsiCH) 657
Melting and the Evaporation of Water 658
The Temperature Distribution 659
The Surface Boundary Conditions (x=0 and x=L) 661
The Gas Phase 663
Auto-ignition 664
Piloted Ignition 666
``Flash Point´´ and ``Fire Point´´ 667
Simplifications and Standardization 668
The Inert Solid Assumption 668
Absorption of Radiation and Global Properties 670
The Boundary Conditions 670
The Ignition Condition 672
The Solution 673
Thermally Thin Materials 674
Summary 675
References 675
978-1-4939-2565-0_22_OnlinePDF 679
22: Electrical Fires 679
Introduction 679
Static Electricity and Electric Current 679
Electrical Discharges 680
Breakdown Phenomena 680
Paschen´s Law 681
Dielectric Strength of Solid or Liquid Insulators 683
Arcs 683
Ignition Modes Involving Electric Current 687
Sparking or Arcing 687
Arcing Across a Carbonized Path 688
Surface Flashover 690
Overloads and Related Phenomena 691
Overheating Connections 695
Ejection of Hot Particles 698
Miscellaneous Phenomena 698
Time for Fire to Initiate from an Electrical Cause 698
Static Electricity 698
General Principles 698
Means by Which Charge Separation Occurs 699
Discharge Types 699
Spark 700
Corona Discharge 700
Brush Discharge 700
Powder Heap Discharge 701
Propagating Brush Discharge 701
Lightning-Like Discharge 702
Electrostatic Charging and Discharging of Solids 702
Electrostatic Charging and Discharging of Persons 703
Electrostatic Charging and Discharging of Granular Materials 704
Electrostatic Charging and Discharging of Liquids 705
Lightning 706
Electrical Characteristics 706
Ignitions from Lightning 708
Safety Measures Against Lightning 709
Ignition and Values of Voltage, Current, or Power 710
Electrical Explosions 711
Basic Phenomena 712
Shock Waves from Electric Arcs 713
Pressures from Arcs in the Open 714
Pressures from Arcs in an Enclosure 714
Summary 716
Nomenclature 717
References 717
978-1-4939-2565-0_23_OnlinePDF 722
23: Surface Flame Spread 722
Introduction 722
Surface Flame Spread Basics 722
Flame Spread Process 722
Research Background 723
Wind-Aided Flame Spread 724
Upward Turbulent Wall Flame Spread 725
Surface Flame Spread Beneath Ceiling 730
Opposed-Flow Flame Spread 731
Mechanism of Opposed-Flow Flame Spread 731
Modeling of Opposed-Flow Flame Spread 734
Mass Fires 734
Flame Spread Over Liquids 736
Summary 738
Nomenclature 738
Headings0002492773 738
References 739
978-1-4939-2565-0_24_OnlinePDF 741
24: Smoke Characterization and Damage Potentials 741
Introduction 741
Deposition Profile 742
Deposition Velocity 742
Laminar Flow (Rep1) 742
Turbulent Flow (Rep1) 743
Detection Overview 744
Smoke Characterization 745
Smoke Particle Size 746
Damage Functions 747
Leakage Current 747
Corrosion 748
Smoke Stain 750
Smoke Odor 752
Damage Thresholds 754
Example Application to Semiconductor Fabrication Facilities 756
Damage Estimation Model 757
Fire Scenario and Results 757
Nomenclature 759
References 759
978-1-4939-2565-0_25_OnlinePDF 762
25: Heat Transfer from Fires to Surfaces 762
Introduction 762
Heat Transfer Boundary Condition 763
Heat Flux Gauges 763
Adiabatic Surface Temperature 766
Objects Immersed in Flames 766
Exposure Fires 767
Fires Adjacent to Flat Walls 767
Fires in a Corner 768
Fires Beneath Unconfined Ceilings 776
Fires in Corridors 778
Fires Beneath I-Beams 782
Burning Walls and Ceilings 786
Wall Fires 786
Corner Wall Fires 792
Ceiling Fires 797
Burning Parallel Vertical Surfaces 799
Exposure Fires and Burning Walls and Ceilings 801
Fires from Windows 804
Heat Fluxes in Standard Tests 805
Fire Resistance Tests 806
ASTM E84 Tunnel Test 808
Cable Tests 809
Effects of Other Variables 810
Nomenclature 810
Headings0002492775 810
References 811
978-1-4939-2565-0_26_OnlinePDF 816
26: Heat Release Rates 816
Introduction 816
Definitions 816
Measuring the HRR, Full-Scale 816
Measuring the HRR, Bench-Scale 818
Measuring the HRR, Intermediate-Scale 819
Modeling Implications for Using Full-Scale HRR Data 819
Effect of Ignition Source on Full-Scale HRR 821
Effects of Other Variables 821
Modeling with Bench-Scale HRR Data 822
Predicting Bench-Scale HRR from Fundamental Considerations 822
Predicting Full-Scale HRR from Bench-Scale Data: Overview 822
Predicting Full-Scale HRR from Bench-Scale Data: The Role of Irradiance 823
The Dependence of the HRR on the Heat Flux 825
Predicting Full-Scale HRR from Bench-Scale Data: The Effect of Thickness 826
Predicting Full-Scale HRR from Bench-Scale Data: The Effect of Orientation 828
Predicting Full-Scale HRR from Bench-Scale Data: Other Controlling Variables 829
HRR for Real Products 830
Air Conditioners 831
Audio Equipment 831
Bedding 831
Bookcases, Casegoods and Storage Units 833
Boxes and Packaging 833
Carpets and Other Floor Coverings 833
Chairs, Stackable 835
Clothing Items 835
Coffee Makers 838
Computers and Electronic Equipment 838
Cribs (Regular Arrays of Sticks) 845
Curtains 847
Decks 848
Desks 848
Dishwashers 849
Dressers 850
Dryers 850
Electric Cable Trays 850
Foodstuffs 851
Industrial Stored Commodities 853
Kiosks 863
Luggage 865
Magazine Racks 865
Mattresses 865
Mining Equipment 870
Office Furniture 871
Pallets 874
Pillows 876
Pipe Insulation 876
Plants and Vegetation 876
Trees, Natural 876
Bushes, Natural 878
Trees, Plastic 880
Bushes, Plastic 880
Pools, Liquid or Plastic 880
Refrigerators 884
Shop Displays 884
Television Sets 886
Transport Vehicles and Components 887
Trash Bags and Containers 899
Upholstered Furniture 902
Video Games 907
Wall/Ceiling Lining Materials 907
Wardrobes 909
Washing Machines 911
Windows, Plastic 912
Estimating the HRR for General Combustibles 912
Uncertainty of HRR Measurements 912
References 913
978-1-4939-2565-0_27_OnlinePDF 922
27: Calorimetry 922
Introduction 922
Oxygen Bomb Calorimetry 923
Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter Test 923
Gross Versus Net Heat of Combustion 923
Techniques for Measuring Heat Release Rate 924
Sensible Enthalpy Rise Method 924
Substitution Method 927
Compensation Method 928
Oxygen Consumption Method 928
Thornton´s Rule 929
Volatiles or Condensed Phase? 929
Implementation of the Oxygen Consumption Method 930
Only O2 Measured 932
O2, CO2, and CO Measured 933
Carbon Oxide Calorimetry 934
Practical Considerations 934
Factors Affecting Small-Scale Heat Release Measurements 935
Open or Closed Configuration 935
Type of Heater 936
Type of Ignition Pilot 937
Specimen Size 937
Edge Effects 938
Specimen Orientation 939
Airflow 939
Other Measurements 939
Commonly Used Small-Scale Calorimeters 939
Ohio State University (OSU) Calorimeter 939
Thermopile Versions 940
Oxygen Consumption Versions 941
Cone Calorimeter 942
Standard Version 942
Modified Versions 943
Fire Propagation Apparatus 943
FAA Microscale Combustion Calorimeter 945
Comparative Studies Between Different Small-Scale Tests 946
Intermediate- and Large-Scale Calorimeters 947
Standard Hood and Exhaust Duct 947
Intermediate-Scale Calorimeter (ICAL) 948
Furniture Calorimeter 949
Room/Corner Test 951
Historical Overview 951
Room/Corner Test Standards 952
Single Burning Item Test 953
Industrial-Scale Calorimeters 954
Use and Application of Heat Release Rate Data 954
Small-Scale Calorimeter Data 955
Regression Models 955
Analytical Models 955
Physics-Based Models 956
Direct Use of Heat Release Rate Measurements at Multiple Heat Fluxes 956
Use of Heat Release Properties 957
Intermediate-Scale Calorimeter Data 959
Furniture Calorimeter Data 959
Industrial-Scale Calorimeter Data 960
Uncertainty of Heat Release Rate Measurements 960
Summary 962
References 963
Codes and Standards 967
978-1-4939-2565-0_28_OnlinePDF 969
28: The Cone Calorimeter 969
Introduction 969
Summary of Features 969
Uses of Cone Calorimeter Data 970
Comparative Evaluation of Materials 970
Obtaining Thermophysical Constants of Materials 972
Input Data for Fire Models or Calculations 972
Regulatory Compliance 973
Operating Principle 973
The Radiant Heater 974
The Shutter 978
Airflow 979
Means of Ignition 980
Specimen Area and Thickness 981
Sample Testing Specifications 983
Specimen Orientation and Specimen Holders 983
Load Cell 984
Edge Conditions 986
Smoke Measurement 987
Calibration Equipment 988
Miscellaneous Details 988
Ring Sampler 988
Additional Gas Analyzers 989
Special Issues with Product Testing 989
Liquids 989
Electrical Cables 990
Intumescing Materials 991
Low HRR Materials and Noncombustibility 991
Composites 991
Measurements Taken with the Cone Calorimeter 992
Repeatability and Reproducibility 993
Special Cone Calorimeters 994
Nomenclature 994
References 995
978-1-4939-2565-0_29_OnlinePDF 998
29: Compartment Fire Modeling 998
Introduction 998
Conservation Equations 999
Conservation of Mass 1000
Conservation of Species 1001
Conservation of Energy 1001
Summary 1002
Source Term Submodels 1003
Mass and Heat Transport Submodels 1004
Entrainment 1004
Vent Flows Through Openings in Vertical Partitions 1004
Convective Heat Transfer to Surfaces 1005
Radiative Heat Transfer 1006
Conduction Heat Transfer 1007
Mixing Between the Layers 1007
Forced Flow Effects 1008
Fire Growth Rate 1008
Embedded Submodels 1008
Unresolved Phenomena 1009
Selected Reading and Comments 1009
Headings0002492779 1010
References 1011
978-1-4939-2565-0_30_OnlinePDF 1013
30: Estimating Temperatures in Compartment Fires 1013
Introduction 1013
Fire Stages 1013
Growth Stage Definitions 1013
Compartment Fire Phenomena 1014
Compartment Fire Model 1014
Calculation of Compartment Fire Temperatures 1015
Energy Generated by the Fire 1016
Conservation of Mass 1017
Conservation of Energy 1019
Methods for Predicting Preflashover Compartment Fire Temperatures 1019
Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad 1019
Method of Foote, Pagni, and Alvares 1022
Method of Beyler and Deal 1023
Method of Peatross and Beyler 1024
Method of Beyler 1025
Methods for Predicting Postflashover Compartment Fire Temperatures 1027
Method of Babrauskas 1027
Method of Law 1030
Method of Delichatsios et al. 1032
Swedish Method 1033
Japanese Method 1033
Predicting Flashover 1035
Method of Babrauskas 1035
Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad 1036
Method of Thomas 1037
Comparison of Methods for Predicting Flashover 1037
Nomenclature 1038
Headings0002492780 1038
References 1039
978-1-4939-2565-0_31_OnlinePDF 1041
31: Zone Computer Fire Models for Enclosures 1041
Introduction 1041
Zone Models 1042
Overview of Selected Models 1043
ASET 1044
COMPBRN III 1044
COMPF2 1044
CONTAM 1044
CSTBZ1 1045
CFAST 1045
BRANZFIRE 1045
JET 1045
FIRST 1045
FIRE SIMULATOR 1046
FSSIM 1046
LAVENT 1046
MAGIC 1047
WPI/FIRE 1047
BRI2 1047
Selection, Validation, and Application of Zone Models 1047
Selection 1047
Validation 1048
Application 1048
References 1049
978-1-4939-2565-0_32_OnlinePDF 1051
32: Modeling Fires Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 1051
Introduction 1051
Governing Equations 1052
Conservation Equations 1052
Conservation of Mass 1053
Conservation of Momentum 1053
Conservation of Energy 1053
Additional Assumptions 1053
Turbulence Modeling 1054
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) 1054
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) 1054
Large Eddy Simulation (LES) 1056
Other Approaches 1057
Source Terms and Boundary Conditions 1058
Combustion 1058
Radiation Heat Transfer 1059
Mass Exchange at Boundaries 1060
Momentum Exchange at Boundaries 1060
Energy Exchange at Boundaries 1061
Open Boundary Conditions 1062
Visibility 1062
Sprinklers and Fire Suppression 1062
Fire-Structure Interface 1062
Numerical Solution 1063
Finite Difference Approximation 1063
Explicit Versus Implicit Schemes 1064
Conservative Versus Nonconservative Schemes 1064
Staggered Versus Co-located Variables 1064
Order of Accuracy of the Scheme 1064
Spatial Dimension of the Scheme 1065
Finite Volume Method 1065
Alternative Solution Methods 1066
Computer Hardware and Software 1066
Visualization 1067
Verification and Validation 1067
Verification 1068
Validation 1068
Applicability of Validation Experiments 1068
Quantifying Model Uncertainty 1069
Applications 1071
Fundamental Fire Dynamics 1071
Smoke Movement 1072
Smoke Transport in a Mechanically Ventilated Library 1072
Smoke Transport in a Historic Landmark 1073
Smoke Transport in a Multistory Residential Building 1073
Tunnels 1074
Parking Garages 1075
Fire Investigation 1075
Outdoor Applications and Wind 1076
Virtual Experiments 1076
The Role of CFD in the Design Process 1078
Summary 1078
Nomenclature 1079
Greek Letters 1079
Appendix 1079
References 1080
978-1-4939-2565-0_33_OnlinePDF 1083
33: Enclosure Smoke Filling and Fire-Generated Environmental Conditions 1083
Introduction 1083
Background 1084
Stages of Enclosure Fires 1084
Fire Plume/Ceiling Jet Stage 1084
Enclosure Smoke-Filling Stage 1085
Preflashover Vented Stage 1086
Postflashover Vented Stage 1086
Phenomena Associated with Modeling of Enclosure Smoke Filling 1087
Global (One-Zone) Analysis 1089
Sealed Compartment 1090
Leaky Compartment 1091
Temperature Rise 1092
Concentrations of Smoke and Other Species 1095
Oxygen Limitations on Heat Release in a Closed Room Fire 1097
Light Attenuation and Visibility Through Smoke 1098
Descending Smoke Layer Analysis 1099
Conditions in the Descending Smoke Layer 1102
Influence of Mechanical Ventilation on Smoke Layer Conditions 1104
Global Effects of Mechanical Ventilation 1104
Smoke Layer Analysis with Mechanical Ventilation 1108
Floor Leak (Case 1) Analysis 1108
Ceiling Leak (Case 2) Analysis 1110
Numerical Methods for Solving Initial Value Problems 1112
Treatment of Enclosure Smoke Filling in Different Fire Models 1113
Comparisons with Experimental Data 1114
Summary 1115
Nomenclature 1116
Headings0002492783 1116
References 1117
978-1-4939-2565-0_34_OnlinePDF 1119
34: Methods for Predicting Temperatures in Fire-Exposed Structures 1119
Introduction 1119
Heat Transfer to Structures 1119
Radiation 1120
Convection 1121
Total Heat Transfer and Adiabatic Surface Temperature 1121
Heat Transfer to Fire-Exposed Structures 1122
Calculating Heat Transfer Using Plate Thermometer Temperatures 1122
Modeling of Heat Conduction in Materials 1124
Heat Conduction in Solid Materials 1124
Measurement of Thermal Properties 1125
Finite Element Calculations of Temperature in Fire-Exposed Structures 1125
Basic Equations Derived for One-Dimensional Case 1126
Available Computer Codes for Temperature Calculations 1128
Accuracy of Finite Element Computer Codes 1128
Calculation of Temperature in Steel Structures 1129
Thermal Properties of Steel 1129
Insulated Steel Structures 1129
Unprotected Steel Structures 1135
Shadow Effects 1135
Example of Steel Temperatures Calculated Using Finite Element Codes 1135
Calculation of Temperature in Concrete Structures 1138
Thermal Properties of Concrete 1139
Penetration Depth in Semi-Infinite Structures 1139
Simple One-Dimensional Calculations 1141
Fire-Insulated Concrete Structures 1143
Calculation of Temperature in Timber Structures 1144
Heat Transfer in Fire Resistance Furnaces 1144
Furnaces Controlled According to ISO 834 and EN 1363-1 1144
Furnaces Controlled According to ASTM E119 1145
References 1146
978-1-4939-2565-0_35_OnlinePDF 1148
35: Fire Load Density 1148
Introduction 1148
Definitions 1148
Representation of Fire Load 1148
Basic Representation 1148
Stochastic Representation 1149
Fire Load Density in Fire Safety Design 1149
Assessment of the Fire Load for Fire Safety Design 1150
Estimation of Fire Loads Based on In Situ Surveys 1151
Survey Methods 1151
Assessment of Weight 1151
Heat of Combustion 1151
Total Fire Load 1152
Derated Fire Load 1153
Effective Fire Load 1154
Defining Characteristic and Design Values from In Situ Surveys 1154
Fire Load Density for Different Occupancy Classes 1154
Common Occupancy Classes 1155
Industrial Buildings 1156
References 1158
978-1-4939-2565-0_36_OnlinePDF 1160
36: Combustion Characteristics of Materials and Generation of Fire Products 1160
Introduction 1160
Flammability Apparatuses and Measurement Capabilities 1161
Combustion Characteristics of Materials: Engineering and Modeling Applications 1164
Ignition (Fire Initiation) 1164
Critical Heat Flux (CHF) 1167
Thermal Response Parameter (TRP) 1167
Fire Propagation 1171
Empirical Relationship Between Fire Propagation Rate, Flame Height, Pyrolysis Front, and Heat Release Rate 1174
Application of the Fire Propagation Index (FPI) to Classify Materials 1176
Flaming and Nonflaming Phenomena 1184
Pyrolysis and Determination of ``Model-Specific´´ Material Properties 1191
Optimization 1192
Application 1195
Synthetic Data and Target Selection 1195
FPA Data and Intermediate-Scale Fire Growth Simulations 1198
Heat Release Rate 1198
Chemical Heat Release Rate 1200
Convective Heat Release Rate 1201
Generation of Fire Products and Smoke Yields 1210
Efficiencies of Oxygen Mass Consumption and Mass Generation of Products 1214
Generation Rates of Fire Products and Fire Ventilation Effects 1217
Generalized Relationships to Calculate Chemical, Convective, and Radiative Heats of Combustion and Yields of Products at Vario... 1225
Smoke Point 1228
Ignition Resistance 1233
Increasing the Resistance to Ignition and Fire Propagation by Increasing the Critical Heat Flux (CHF) and Thermal Response Par... 1233
Decreasing the Values of the Heat Release Parameter (HRP) and the Flame Heat Flux 1235
Changing the Nature of Fire Products 1236
Flame Extinction 1236
Flame Extinction by the Processes in the Gas Phase 1239
Flame Extinction by Reduced Mass Fraction of Oxygen 1240
Nomenclature 1242
Headings0002492786 1242
References 1243
978-1-4939-2565-0_37_OnlinePDF 1250
37: Performance-Based Design 1250
Introduction 1250
Types of Performance 1250
Component Performance 1250
Environmental Performance 1251
Threat Potential Performance 1251
Risk Potential Performance 1251
History of Performance-Based Fire Protection Design 1252
Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance-Based Design 1253
Advantages 1253
Disadvantages 1253
Process of Performance-Based Design [1] 1254
Defining the Project Scope 1254
Identifying Goals 1255
Defining Objectives 1256
Developing Performance Criteria 1256
Developing Fire Scenarios 1257
Developing Trial Designs 1259
Fire Protection Engineering Design Brief 1259
Quantifying Design Fire Scenarios 1260
Evaluating Trial Designs 1261
Documenting the Design Process 1262
Application of Performance-Based Design 1263
Use with Prescriptive-Based Regulations 1263
Use with Performance-Based Regulations 1263
Use as a Stand-Alone Methodology 1264
Hazard Versus Risk 1264
Risk-Based and Deterministic Analyses 1264
Event Trees 1264
Model Use in Performance-Based Design 1266
Definition of the Problem of Interest 1267
Select a Candidate Model 1268
Verification and Validation 1269
Select Experiments 1270
Choose a Metric to Quantify Accuracy 1270
Report Results 1270
User Effects 1271
Input Uncertainty 1271
Implications for the Design Process 1271
Documentation 1272
SFPE Handbook Use in the Step-by-Step Process of Performance-Based Design 1272
Summary 1277
References 1277
978-1-4939-2565-0_38_OnlinePDF 1279
38: Fire Scenarios 1279
Introduction 1279
Development of Fire Scenarios 1280
Building Characteristics 1280
Fuel Loads 1281
Types of Combustibles 1281
Functions in Building 1282
Passive Fire Protection Systems 1282
Detection and Suppression Systems 1282
Occupant Load and Characteristics 1283
Actions Taken by Occupants 1283
Actions Taken by the Fire Department 1283
Identification of Potential Fire Scenarios 1283
Selection of Design Fire Scenarios 1284
Event Trees 1285
Frequency Calculation 1286
Statistics and Historical Information 1286
Consideration of Consequence 1286
Risk Ranking 1286
Scenario Selection 1288
Quantifying Design Fire Scenarios 1288
Design Fires 1288
Quantifying the Fire and Its Impacts 1290
Consequence Analysis 1293
Summary 1294
Appendix 1: Fire Scenarios in Risk Model FiRECAM 1294
Design Fires 1295
Appendix 2: Example Demonstrating Selection of Fire Scenarios 1295
References 1303
978-1-4939-2565-0_39_OnlinePDF 1306
39: Engineering Considerations for Fire Protection System Selection 1306
Introduction 1306
Structuring the Decision Making Process 1307
Considering Stakeholders Concerns 1308
Understanding the Facility´s Intended Purpose and Operation 1309
Characterizing How Fire Can Impact the Facility and Its Operations: Defining Fire Hazards and Scenarios 1310
Describing the Desired Outcomes and Consequences If a Fire Should Occur: Defining Overall Fire Safety Goals 1311
Articulating Goals and Objectives 1312
Associating Fire Event Outcomes with Building and Fire Regulations 1312
Addressing Property Protection, Business Continuity and Historic Preservation Goals 1313
Insurance Company Objectives 1314
Identifying Candidate Fire Fighting Agents 1314
Water 1315
Aqueous Foams 1316
Inert Gases and Carbon Dioxide 1317
Halocarbon Clean Agents 1318
Dry Chemicals 1319
Wet Chemicals 1320
Aerosols 1320
Code Mandated Fire Protection Systems 1321
Facility Specific Standards 1322
Insurance Company Guidelines 1324
Fire Protection System Reference Standards 1325
Manufacturer´s Literature 1326
Listing Protocols 1326
Long Term System Performance 1328
Concluding Remarks 1328
References 1329
978-1-4939-2565-0_40_OnlinePDF 1331
40: Design of Detection Systems 1331
Introduction 1331
A Note About Precision 1331
Overview of Design and Analysis 1332
Detection 1334
Heat Detection 1335
Heat Detection: Steady-State Fires 1340
Heat Detection, Growing Fires, and Quasi-Steady-State Modeling 1341
Heat Detection: Potential Errors: Steady-State and Quasi-Steady-State Modeling 1342
Heat Detection: Power-Law Fires 1343
Heat Detection: Potential Errors: Power-Law Fire Modeling 1347
Selection of Data for Design and Analysis 1348
Heat Detection Design and Analysis Examples Using the Power-Law Fire Model 1351
Smoke Detection 1360
Modeling Smoke Detector Response: General 1361
Modeling Smoke Detector Response: Light Obscuration Smoke Detectors 1362
Modeling Smoke Detector Response: Light Scattering (Photoelectric) Smoke Detectors 1363
Modeling Smoke Detector Response: Ionization Smoke Detectors 1365
Modeling Smoke Detector Response: Entry Resistance 1365
Smoke Detection Calculation Examples 1367
Radiant Energy Detection 1374
Radiation Detection Example 1375
Designing Fire Alarm Audibility 1376
Cost Analysis 1386
Designing Fire Alarm Visibility 1387
Nomenclature 1391
References 1392
Further Readings 1394
978-1-4939-2565-0_41_OnlinePDF 1395
41: Hydraulics 1395
Introduction 1395
Physical Properties of Fluids 1395
Density 1395
Specific Weight 1395
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) 1396
Viscosity 1396
Fluid Pressure 1396
Pressure Measuring Devices 1397
Manometer Tube 1397
Piezometer Tube 1398
Bourdon Gauge 1398
Forces on Submerged Plane Areas due to Fluid Pressure 1399
Fluid Dynamics 1399
Conservation Laws in Fluid Flows 1399
General Considerations for Fluid Energy Losses in Pipe Flows 1402
Fluid Flow Energy Loss Equations 1404
Chezy Equation 1404
Darcy-Weisbach Friction Loss 1404
Hazen-Williams Friction Loss 1408
Minor Losses 1412
Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 1416
Flow Measurement and Discharge 1418
Flow Measuring Devices 1418
Free Discharge at an Opening 1422
Water Hammer 1424
Water Supplies 1426
Water Mains 1427
Elevated Tanks 1430
Pumps and Tanks 1432
Pumps and Other Stored/Static Water Sources 1432
Pumps 1433
Pump Operating Characteristics 1433
Pump Selection 1436
Centrifugal Pump Affinity Relations 1437
Nomenclature 1439
References 1439
978-1-4939-2565-0_42_OnlinePDF 1440
42: Automatic Sprinkler System Calculations 1440
Introduction 1440
Applications Where Water Is Appropriate 1440
Types of Sprinkler Systems 1440
Applicable Standards 1441
Trends in Sprinkler System Development 1442
Limits of Calculation in an Empirical Design Process 1442
Hydraulic Calculations 1443
Density-Based Sprinkler Demand 1443
Pressure Requirements of the Most Remote Sprinkler 1446
Pressure Losses Through Piping, Fittings, and Valves 1447
Use of Velocity Pressures 1449
Elevation Losses 1451
Loops and Grids 1451
Water Supply Calculations 1454
Determination of Available Supply Curve 1454
Pump Selection and Testing 1456
Tank Sizing 1457
Hanging and Bracing Methods 1459
Hangers and Hanger Supports 1459
Trapeze Hangers 1459
Earthquake Braces 1460
Performance Calculations 1461
Sprinkler Response as a Detector 1461
Dry System Water Delivery Time 1461
Droplet Size, Penetration and Motion 1462
Spray Density and Cooling 1463
Suppression by Sprinkler Sprays 1464
Nomenclature 1465
References 1465
978-1-4939-2565-0_43_OnlinePDF 1467
43: Halon Design Calculations 1467
Introduction 1467
Characteristics of Halon 1467
Background, Definition, and Classifications of Halon Compounds 1467
History 1468
Halon 1301 1470
Attributes and Limitations 1470
Properties 1471
Physical Properties 1471
Extinguishing Effectiveness 1473
Corrosive Effects of Undecomposed Halons 1473
Toxicity 1474
General Toxic Properties 1474
Products of Decomposition 1474
Other Halons 1475
Physical Properties 1475
Toxicity 1475
Halon in the Fire Protection Spectrum 1476
System Configurations 1477
Detection 1477
Control Panels 1477
Features 1477
Modes of Operation 1478
Control Panel Economics 1478
Agent Delivery 1479
Design Concepts and Methodology 1480
Definitions and Terminology 1480
Halon Design Guidelines 1480
Local Application and Special Systems 1481
Agent Requirements: Total Flooding 1482
Design Concentrations: Solid Fuels 1482
Design Concentrations: Liquid and Gas Fires 1483
Calculation of Agent Quantity 1485
Application Rate 1486
Discharge Time and Soaking Period 1486
Effects of Ventilation 1486
Compensation for Leakage 1487
Flow Calculations 1488
Piping Theory 1488
Guidelines and Limitations 1491
Calculation Procedure 1491
Postdesign Considerations 1496
System Documentation 1496
System Manual 1496
As-Built System Drawings 1496
Inspection and Acceptance 1496
Environmental Considerations 1497
Nomenclature 1498
References 1498
978-1-4939-2565-0_44_OnlinePDF 1500
44: Clean Agent Total Flooding Fire Extinguishing Systems 1500
Introduction 1500
Characteristics of Clean Agents 1500
Extinguishing Mechanisms 1502
Flammable Gas and Liquid Extinguishing Concentration 1503
Solid Fuel Extinguishing Concentrations 1509
Energized Electrical Equipment Extinguishing Concentrations 1511
Explosion Inerting 1515
Explosion Suppression 1515
Toxicity 1516
Environmental Factors 1519
Ozone Depletion 1519
Atmospheric Lifetimes 1520
Global Warming Potential 1520
Environmental Regulation of Halon Replacements 1521
Thermophysical Properties 1522
Clean Agent System Design 1522
Design Concentration 1526
Agent Quantity 1529
Discharge Time 1530
Thermal Decomposition Products 1530
System Discharge Effects 1533
Hydraulic Flow Characteristics 1534
Nozzle Area Coverage and Height Limitations 1541
Compartment Pressurization 1542
Agent Hold Time and Leakage 1543
Summary 1544
References 1544
978-1-4939-2565-0_45_OnlinePDF 1548
45: Carbon Dioxide Systems 1548
Introduction 1548
Range of System Configurations 1548
Total Flooding 1549
Local Application 1549
Extended Discharge Duration 1549
Hand Hose Line System-Fixed Supply 1549
Standpipe System-Mobile Supply 1549
Range of Applications 1549
Classification of Fire Hazards 1550
Carbon Dioxide Suitability 1551
Industrial Applications 1551
Marine Applications 1551
Characteristics of Carbon Dioxide 1552
Fire Extinguishing Mechanisms 1553
Thermo-physical Properties 1553
Health and Safety 1557
Carbon Dioxide System Design 1562
Design Standards and Guidelines 1562
System Configuration 1564
Storage and Distribution 1564
System Controls for Industrial Applications 1566
Means of Electrical Operation 1566
Means of Pneumatic Operation 1567
Means of Mechanical Operation 1567
System Actuation 1567
Manual Normal Actuation 1568
Manual Emergency Actuation 1568
Automatic Actuation 1568
System Valves 1568
Selector Valves 1568
Lockout Valves 1568
Check Valves 1570
Notification of System Status 1570
Warning and Instruction Signs 1570
Pre-discharge Alarm and Time Delay 1570
Post-discharge Alarm and Discharge Indication 1570
System Controls for Marine Applications 1570
Manual Operation 1571
Other Controls and Notification Requirements 1571
Carbon Dioxide Quantity and Rate of Application 1571
Total Flooding Systems, Non-marine Applications 1571
Surface Fires 1572
Determining Design Quantity 1572
Ducts and Covered Trenches 1576
Discharge Rate 1576
Deep-Seated Fires 1576
Determining the Design Quantity 1576
Discharge Rate 1578
Total Flooding Systems, Marine Applications 1578
Quantity of Carbon Dioxide 1578
Discharge Rate 1583
Enclosure Venting for Pressure Control for Total Flooding Systems 1583
Local Application Systems 1584
High-Pressure Storage Supply 1585
Vaporization in Pipe System 1585
Rate-by-Area Method 1586
Rate-by-Volume Method 1588
Carbon Dioxide Hydraulic Calculations to Estimate Nozzle Pressure 1590
Pipeline Pressure Loss due to Flow 1590
Nozzle Selection 1592
Estimation of Nozzle Pressure 1592
References 1602
978-1-4939-2565-0_46_OnlinePDF 1604
46: Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems 1604
Introduction 1604
Fundamentals of Water Mist Systems 1607
Mechanisms of Fire Extinguishment and Suppression 1607
Gas Phase Cooling 1607
Oxygen Depletion and Flammable Vapor Dilution 1609
Wetting and Cooling of the Fuel Surface 1609
Radiation Attenuation and Kinetic Effects 1609
Enclosure Effects, Turbulent Mixing, and Cycling 1610
Explosion Hazard Mitigation with Water Mist 1611
Spray Characteristics 1614
Drop Size Distribution 1614
Spray Cone Angle 1615
Spray Velocity 1615
Discharge Rate 1615
Spray Momentum 1615
Measurement of Drop Size Distributions 1615
Spray Velocity 1616
Additives and Health Concerns 1618
Fire Suppression Modeling 1620
Zone Models 1622
Quasi-Steady-State Zone Models 1622
Transient Zone Models 1624
CFD Models (Field Models) 1625
Modeling Summary 1629
Approval Testing of Equipment 1629
Development of Additional Fire Test Protocols 1630
Water Mist Systems in Tunnels 1633
Engineering Details of Water Mist Systems 1636
Types of Water Mist Systems 1636
Mode of Application 1637
Methods of Spray Generation 1641
Pressure Regimes 1643
Designing with Positive Displacement Pumps 1645
Acceptance Testing of Water Mist Systems 1651
Summary 1653
References 1654
978-1-4939-2565-0_47_OnlinePDF 1663
47: Foam Agents and AFFF System Design Considerations 1663
Introduction 1663
Description of Foam Agents 1664
Fire Extinguishment and Spreading Theory 1665
Foam Loss Mechanisms 1666
Foam Spread over Liquid Fuels 1670
Foam Extinguishment Modeling 1673
Surface Tension and Spreading Coefficient 1674
Assessment of Fire Extinguishing and Burnback Performance 1676
Standard Test Methods 1676
Critical Application Rates and Correlations Between Small- and Large-Scale Tests 1684
Aviation Fire Protection Considerations 1690
Historical Basis for Foam Requirements 1690
Agent Quantities and Standards 1690
New Airfield Protection Approaches 1696
Aircraft Hangar Protection 1697
Foam-Water Sprinkler Systems 1706
Codes, Standards, and Regulations 1706
Protection of Stored Flammable and Combustible Liquids 1708
Foam Environmental Considerations 1712
Fluorinated Surfactants 1714
Perspective on the Use of Foam Agents 1715
Methods of Assessment 1716
Mitigation Strategies 1718
Nomenclature 1719
Headings0002492797 1719
References 1720
Additional Readings 1723
978-1-4939-2565-0_48_OnlinePDF 1724
48: Foam System Calculations 1724
Introduction 1724
Fire Protection Objectives for Foam Systems 1724
Basic Types of Foam System Protection 1725
Fixed Foam Systems 1725
Semifixed Foam Systems 1725
Mobile Systems 1726
Portable Systems 1726
Compressed Air Foam Systems 1726
Protection of Incipient Spills and Related Hazards 1726
Low-Expansion Foam Systems 1726
Protection for Fixed Roof Atmospheric Storage Tanks 1727
Foam Monitors 1727
Foam Handlines 1727
Surface Application of Foam 1727
Procedure for Determining Foam Supply for Atmospheric Storage Tanks Protected with a Surface Application Low-Expansion System 1728
Hydraulic Analysis of a Surface Application Foam System Protecting a Flammable Liquids Storage Tank 1733
Subsurface Application of Foam 1735
Procedure for Determining Foam Supply for Atmospheric Storage Tanks Protected with a Subsurface Application Low-Expansion Syst... 1735
Hydraulic Analysis for Subsurface Application Foam System Protecting a Flammable Liquids Storage Tank 1740
Semisubsurface Injection Method 1742
Protection for Floating Roof Storage Tanks 1742
Introduction 1742
Portable Nozzle Method 1742
Catenary System Method 1742
Fixed Foam Maker Method 1742
Seal Area Application of Foam 1743
Procedure for Determining Foam and Water Supply for Surface Application Low-Expansion Foam Systems for the Protection of Float... 1743
Hydraulic Analysis of a Surface Application Low-Expansion Foam Systems for the Protection of Floating Roof Tank Seals 1745
Protection of Storage or High-Volume Hazards with High-Expansion Foam 1745
Concepts and Suitability for Medium and High-Expansion Foams 1745
Personal Safety 1746
Special Considerations 1746
High-Expansion Foam System Calculations 1746
Hydraulic Calculation Procedure for High-Expansion Foam Systems 1747
Hydraulic Analysis for High-Expansion Foam System 1751
Compressed Air Foam Systems 1752
Limitations of Foam Fire Protection Systems 1753
Limiting Factors for Low-Expansion Foam Systems 1753
Limiting Factors for Medium- and High-Expansion Foam Systems 1753
The Advent of Class A Foams 1754
Nomenclature 1756
References 1756
978-1-4939-2565-0_49_OnlinePDF 1757
49: Considerations for Coordinating and Interfacing Fire Protection and Life Safety Systems 1757
Introduction 1757
Relevant Documents 1759
Terminology 1760
Systems Overview 1760
Egress 1760
Compartmentation 1761
Detection Systems 1762
Notification Systems 1763
Suppression Systems 1765
Smoke Control 1767
Other Ventilation Systems 1768
Emergency and Standby Power 1768
Elevators and Escalators 1769
Access Control Systems 1770
Other Control and Monitoring Systems 1771
Emergency (Fire) Command Center 1771
Summary 1772
System Integration Considerations During the Design Process 1772
Design Considerations 1775
Example: HVAC Shutdown 1777
Example: Special Suppression System 1783
Matrix of Responsibilities 1788
Systems Interfacing Methods 1789
Wiring Methods 1789
Installation Considerations 1792
Commissioning and Integrated Systems Testing 1792
Systems Coordination During Construction 1795
Life of the Building 1798
Glossary 1799
References 1800
978-1-4939-2565-0_50_OnlinePDF 1802
50: Smoke Control 1802
Introduction 1802
Physical Mechanisms of Smoke Control 1802
Pressurization Smoke Control Systems 1804
Network Modeling 1805
Smoke Movement 1806
Stack Effect 1806
Another Meaning of Stack Effect 1808
Buoyancy of Combustion Gases 1809
Expansion of Combustion Gases 1809
Wind 1809
Forced Ventilation 1810
Elevator Piston Effect 1810
Effective Flow Areas 1811
Example 1. Effective Flow Areas 1813
Symmetry 1813
Flow and Pressure Difference 1814
Friction Losses in Shafts 1816
Door Opening Forces 1816
Example 2. Door Opening Force 1816
Design Pressure Differences 1816
Stairwell Pressurization 1817
Height Limit 1818
Stairwell Temperature 1818
Simple and Complicated Buildings 1819
Example 3. Simple Stairwell Pressurization in a Simple Building 1819
Single and Multiple Injection 1821
Vestibules 1822
System with Fire Floor Exhaust 1823
Stairwells and Open Doors 1823
Elevator Shaft Pressurization 1824
Basic System 1825
Exterior Vent (EV) System 1827
Floor Exhaust (FE) System 1828
Ground Floor Lobby (GFL) System 1829
Zoned Smoke Control 1830
Interaction with Pressurized Stairs 1831
Tenability Systems 1834
Analysis Components 1834
Smoke Transport Calculations 1834
Tenability Calculations 1835
Commissioning and Testing 1836
Commissioning Process 1837
Commissioning Testing 1837
Periodic Testing 1837
Nomenclature 1838
References 1839
978-1-4939-2565-0_51_OnlinePDF 1841
51: Smoke Control by Mechanical Exhaust or Natural Venting 1841
Introduction 1841
Hazard Parameters 1842
Smoke Layer Interface Position 1842
Light Obscuration 1842
Temperature and Gas Specie Concentration 1843
Smoke Management Approaches 1843
Analytical Approach 1844
Physical Scale Models 1844
Analytical Models 1845
Smoke Filling Period 1846
Transport Lag 1846
Smoke Layer Interface Position 1847
Empirical Correlations 1848
Theoretically Based Approach 1850
Vented Period 1851
Equilibrium Smoke Layer Interface Position 1851
Properties of Smoke Layer 1856
Comparison of Mechanical Exhaust and Natural Venting Designs 1859
Design Aspects of Mechanical Venting Systems 1859
Design Aspects of Natural Venting Systems 1860
Thermal Activation of Vents 1864
Sprinklers and Vents 1865
A Consensus Approach to the Design of Combined Sprinkler/Vent Systems 1868
Special Conditions 1869
Intermediate Stratification 1869
Plume Width 1871
Plugholing 1872
Makeup Air Supply 1873
Limited Fuel 1874
Opposed Airflow 1874
Nomenclature 1875
Headings0002492801 1875
References 1876
978-1-4939-2565-0_52_OnlinePDF 1880
52: Structural Fire Engineering of Building Assemblies and Frames 1880
Introduction 1880
Limit States Design 1880
Resistance 1881
Reliability 1882
Fire Exposures 1883
Overview of Heat Transfer Analysis 1885
Overview of Structural Analysis 1888
Collapse Prevention 1891
Structural Load Combinations for Fire Resistance 1891
High-Temperature Effects on Structure 1892
Thermal Strains 1893
Thermal Degradation of Construction Material Properties 1893
Structural Analysis 1894
Structural Analysis Before the Fire 1894
Structural Analysis During the Fire 1895
Structural Analysis at the Required Resistance Time 1898
Utilization of Substructures 1899
Fire Resistance of Individual Members 1900
Floors 1902
Walls 1903
Structural Steel Design Criteria in the United States 1906
Fire Resistance of Frames 1907
Input and Modeling Uncertainties 1912
Limitations and Uncertainties of Thermal Calculations 1914
Limitations and Uncertainties of Mechanical Calculations 1918
Limitations of Experimental Tests 1922
Summary 1923
Headings0002492802 1924
References 1924
978-1-4939-2565-0_53_OnlinePDF 1926
53: Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Steel Members 1926
Introduction 1926
Standard Test for Fire Resistance of Structural Members 1927
Fire Resistance of Steel Members 1928
Steel Material Properties 1929
Methods of Protection 1931
Insulation 1931
Concrete Filling 1934
Membrane 1934
Flame Shield 1934
Heat Sinks 1934
Empirically Derived Correlations 1936
Steel Columns 1937
Steel Beams 1940
Steel Trusses 1941
Heat Transfer Analyses 1944
Numerical Methods 1945
Graphical Solutions 1947
Computer-Based Analyses 1951
Structural Analyses 1953
General Discussion of Three Parameters Addressed in Structural Analysis 1955
Algebraic Equations: Critical Temperature 1955
Beams 1955
Columns 1956
General 1956
Critical Stress 1958
Computer Programs 1960
Nomenclature 1962
References 1963
978-1-4939-2565-0_54_OnlinePDF 1966
54: Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Concrete Members 1966
Introduction 1966
Material Properties of Concrete and Steel 1967
Strength 1967
Modulus of Elasticity 1968
Thermophysical Properties 1968
Heat Transmission 1973
Simply Supported Slabs and Beams 1978
Continuous Unrestrained Flexural Members 1979
End Span 1981
Interior Span with Equal End Moments 1981
Fire Endurance of Concrete Structural Members Restrained Against Thermal Expansion 1982
Example of Continuous One-Way Span 1986
Structural Fire Endurance Based on Continuity Only 1987
Reinforced Concrete Columns 1990
Reinforced Concrete Frames 1991
Reinforced Concrete Walls 1991
Prestressed Concrete Assemblies 1991
Composite Steel-Concrete Construction 1991
Recent Developments 1992
Calculation of Temperatures 1992
Spalling 1993
High-Strength Concrete 1993
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 1993
Hollow-Core Concrete Slabs 1993
References 1994
978-1-4939-2565-0_55_OnlinePDF 1996
55: Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Timber Members 1996
Introduction 1996
Contribution of the Protective Membrane 1997
Component Additive Method 1998
Models for Light-Frame Construction 2000
Direct Protection of Wood Members 2001
Fire-Resistive Exposed Wood Members 2001
Charring of Wood 2002
Standard ASTM E119 Fire Exposure 2002
Effect of Adhesives and Treatments 2005
Nonstandard Fire Exposures 2005
Hadvig´s Equations for Nonstandard Fire Exposure 2005
Theoretical Models 2009
Load-Carrying Capacity of Uncharred Wood 2011
Reduced Properties Models 2013
Reduced Cross-Section Area Models 2014
NDS Method for Exposed Wood Members 2015
Decks 2016
Connections 2017
Adhesives 2017
Composite Models 2018
Property Data 2019
References 2022
978-1-4939-2565-0_56_OnlinePDF 2029
56: Egress Concepts and Design Approaches 2029
Introduction 2029
Historical Perspective 2030
Origins of the 44in. Exit Stair in the US 2030
Exit Capacity 2031
Early Thoughts on Elevators as a Means of Egress 2032
Early Regulatory Approaches in the US 2032
Early Scientific Studies of Flow Rate 2033
Early Scientific Studies of Exit Width 2034
Scientific Studies of Tread Geometry 2034
Fire Escapes 2036
Egress Strategies 2036
Simultaneous Full Building Evacuation 2037
Protect-in-Place 2038
Relocation 2039
Phased or Partial Evacuation 2039
Egress Strategies for People with Disabilities 2040
Performance-Based Strategies 2041
Selecting and Evaluating Options 2041
Exit Components 2042
Occupant Evacuation Elevators 2043
Escalators 2044
Refuge Floors 2046
Pedestrian Walkways and Skybridges 2046
Features in Codes Internationally 2047
Systems and Features That Support Egress 2047
Notification 2047
Wayfinding 2048
Illumination and Exit Marking 2049
Fire and Smoke Protection 2049
Performance-Based Evacuation Design 2049
Design Considerations 2051
Define Project Scope (Step 1) 2051
Define Goals and Objectives (Steps 2 and 3) 2052
Develop Performance Criteria (Step 4) 2052
Develop Design Scenarios (Step 5) 2054
Develop Trial Designs (Step 6) 2055
Evaluate Trial Designs (Step 7) 2055
Prepare Documentation (Step 8) 2058
Design and Operational Considerations 2058
Buildings and Transport Infrastructure 2058
Operational Concerns 2060
Summary 2061
References 2061
978-1-4939-2565-0_57_OnlinePDF 2064
57: Selecting Scenarios for Deterministic Fire Safety Engineering Analysis: Life Safety for Occupants 2064
Introduction 2064
Chapter Outline 2064
Use of Deterministic Analysis in FSE Design 2065
Informing the Scenario Selection Process: Establishing the Context 2066
Project Scope 2066
Fire Safety Goal (FSG) 2066
Fire Safety Objective (FSO) 2066
Discussion of Scenario Relevance: A Case Study 2066
Scenario Selection Process 2069
Identification of Building Uses 2069
Identification of Users and Their Characteristics 2070
Inventory of Characteristics 2070
Why These Characteristics Are Issues 2071
Determination of Life Safety Challenges 2072
Steps in Selecting Scenarios 2073
Location of Fire (Step 1) 2073
Type of Fire (Step 2) 2073
Potential Fire Hazards (Step 3) 2074
Systems and Features Impacting on Fire (Step 4) 2074
People Response (Step 5) 2075
Scenario Selection Process (Step 6 to 10) 2075
Deriving Design Occupant Scenarios 2077
Evacuation Variables for Sensitivity Analysis 2078
Example 2078
Description of the Building 2079
Fire Safety Goal and Fire Safety Objectives 2080
Identification of Building Uses 2080
Identification of Users and Their Characteristics 2080
Determination of Life Safety Challenges 2081
Location of Fire (Step 1) 2081
Type of Fire (Step 2) 2082
Potential Fire Hazards (Step 3) 2082
Systems and Features Impacting on Fire (Step 4) 2083
People Response (Step 5) 2083
Scenario Selection Process (Step 6 to 10) 2083
Deriving Design Occupant Scenarios 2083
Evacuation Variables for Sensitivity Analysis 2083
Summary 2084
References 2085
978-1-4939-2565-0_58_OnlinePDF 2087
58: Human Behavior in Fire 2087
Introduction 2087
Definition of Human Behavior in Fire 2087
Discarded Theories in Human Behavior in Fire 2089
Panic Behavior 2089
Disaster Shock 2090
Group Mind 2091
Engineering Implications of Disaster Myths or Why Should the Engineer Care? 2092
Social Psychological Theories of Human Behavior in Emergencies 2093
Protective Action Decision Model-A Background 2093
Protective Action Decision Model-The Stages of Decision-Making 2096
Engineering Implications of the Protective Action Decision Model 2099
Relating Theory to Practice-Protective Actions in Fires 2101
U.S. and UK Residential Studies 2101
MGM Grand Hotel Fire 2102
2001 World Trade Center Disaster (Office Buildings) 2104
University Library Building in the Czech Republic 2107
University of Greenwich Dreadnought Building (Educational and Library Services Building) 2108
Engineering Implications of Actions Taken During Evacuation 2108
Relating Theory to Practice-The Sequence of Protective Actions in Fires 2108
Engineering Implications of the Linkage of Actions Taken During Evacuation 2111
Relating Theory to Practice-Group Behavior 2113
Affiliative Behavior 2113
Helping Others 2113
Convergence Clusters (for Refuge) 2114
Implications of Describing Behavior in Terms of the Group 2114
Factors that Influence Behavior in Fire 2114
Factor 1: The Influence of Other Occupants on Behavior (Social Influence) 2115
Engineering Implications of Social Influence on Behavior 2117
Factor 2: The Influence of Stress on Behavior (Perception) 2117
Engineering Implications of Stress on Behavior 2118
Factor 3: The Influence of the Built Environment on Behavior 2118
Engineering Implications of the Built Environment on Behavior 2119
Factor 4: The Influence of Leadership (or Role) on Behavior 2119
Engineering Implications of Leadership on Behavior 2120
Factor 5: The Influence of Demographics (Gender) on Behavior 2120
Engineering Implications of the Influence of Demographics (Gender) on Behavior 2122
Summary-Behavioral Facts 2122
What Is Missing in Human Behavior in Fires? 2123
Chapter Summary 2125
References 2126
978-1-4939-2565-0_59_OnlinePDF 2132
59: Employing the Hydraulic Model in Assessing Emergency Movement 2132
Introduction 2132
Establishing Egress Performance 2134
Models 2135
Model Limitations 2136
Estimating te Using the Basic Hydraulic Model 2137
Fundamental Movement Calculations 2138
First- and Second-Order Hydraulic Models 2149
First-Order Hydraulic Model 2149
Second-Order Hydraulic Model 2149
Example Applications 2149
Employing Extended Hydraulic Model to Calculate tesc 2154
Factors Influencing an Evacuation 2154
Basic Variables 2154
Developing Escape Scenarios 2156
Addressing Modeling Error 2159
Using the Hydraulic Model in Conjunction with Other Models 2160
Impact of Tenability on ASET and RSET 2162
Summary 2165
Nomenclature 2166
References 2166
978-1-4939-2565-0_60_OnlinePDF 2169
60: Computer Evacuation Models for Buildingsƒ 2169
Introduction 2169
Overview of Computer Evacuation Models 2169
Step 1: Project Requirements 2171
Project Information Availability 2171
Nature and Scope of the Project 2172
Deliverables of the Project 2172
Project Timing and Funding 2172
Step 2: Model Selection 2172
Background Research on Origin of Model 2172
Model Characteristics 2173
Review of Current Computer Evacuation Models 2176
Step 3: Model Scenarios 2176
Building Configuration 2176
Population Configuration 2180
Procedural Configuration 2183
Incident information 2184
Summary of Model Scenarios 2185
Example of Evacuation Model Scenario Configuration 2185
Scenario Information 2185
Building Configuration 2186
Additional Building Information 2190
Population Configuration 2191
Procedural Configuration 2193
Incident information 2194
User Checklist 2194
Summary 2194
References 2196
978-1-4939-2565-0_61_OnlinePDF 2198
61: Visibility and Human Behavior in Fire Smoke 2198
Introduction 2198
Visibility 2198
Introduction 2198
Visual Acuity 2199
Effect of Age on Visual Acuity 2201
Visibility in Fire Smoke 2202
Introduction 2202
Smoke Density and Visibility 2203
Visibility of Signs Through Smoke 2204
Visibility of Emergency Lights 2205
Visibility of Colored Signs 2205
Decrease of Visibility in Irritant Smoke 2205
Decrease of Visibility Due to Smoke Adhesion on Signs 2207
Light Attenuation by Destructive Hot Smoke 2208
Human Behavior in Fire Smoke and Related Environment 2210
Travel Speed in Escape Routes Considering Luminous Condition, Smoke Density and Evacuee´s Visual Acuity 2210
Effect of Irritant Smoke on Travel Speed 2213
Emotional State in Fire Smoke 2213
Intensive System for Escape Guidance 2215
Improvement of Conspicuousness of Exit Sign by Flashing Light Source 2215
Visibility and Conspicuousness of Exit Source 2216
Improvement of Conspicuousness by Flashing the Light Sources 2216
Development of Intensive Escape Guidance System 2217
Effectiveness of a Directional Sound Escape Guidance System Using the Haas Effect 2219
Summary 2221
References 2222
978-1-4939-2565-0_62_OnlinePDF 2224
62: Combustion Toxicity 2224
Introduction 2224
Material-Based and System-Based Approaches to Toxic Hazard Assessment 2228
Materials-Based and Combustion Product-Based Approaches to Toxicity Assessment 2228
Use of Small-Scale Tests to Represent Toxicity and Toxic Product Yields 2229
The Significance of Toxicity as Part of Total Fire Hazard 2230
Basic Toxicity Patterns of Fire Products 2232
Environmental and Health Issues with Regard to Fire Retardants and Combustion Products 2232
Dose/Response Relationships in Relation to Material Toxic Potency 2233
The Nominal Atmosphere Concentration 2233
Basis and Validation of Human FED Hazard Models from Human and Animal Exposure Studies 2234
Fire Incident Investigations, Associated Tests and Pathology Studies 2236
Smoke Irritants 2236
Asphyxiant Gases 2237
Findings from Primate Exposure Studies 2238
Sensory Irritancy 2241
Estimates of Lethal Toxic Potency for Natural and Synthetic Polymers Under Different Fire Conditions Using Rodents, and Contri... 2242
Multi-gas FED Models for Lethality (LC50 Concentrations) in Rats Following a 30-min Exposure 2242
Fractional Effective Dose Hazard Assessments and Toxic Potency 2247
Toxic Potency 2248
The Toxic Potency of Individual Fire Gases and Gas Mixtures 2248
Toxic Potencies of Individual Materials 2249
Contribution of Different Toxic Gases to Overall Lethal Toxic Potency from Different Materials 2254
Basic Requirements for Toxic Hazard Assessments of Full-Scale Fires 2257
The Application of Small-Scale Tests for the Determination of Toxic Product Yields, and Time-Concentration Curves, to Toxic Ha... 2259
Using Mass Loss Lethal Toxic Potency Data for a Simple Toxic Hazard Assessment 2262
Using a Single Generic Lethal Exposure Dose for All Mixed Fuels 2262
Using Toxic Potency Data for Different Common Material Classes Under Four Fire Conditions 2262
Theoretical Example of the Application of the Mass Loss Lethal Toxic Potency Data for a Simple Toxic Hazard Assessment [63] 2263
Incapacitation 2264
Assessment of Irritancy and Derivation of Irritancy Calculations for Humans 2265
Irritant Fire Products 2266
Animal Models for the Assessment of Irritancy and Their Extrapolation to Humans 2267
Rodent Respiratory Rate Depression Test 2268
Lung Inflammatory Reactions 2271
Irritant Components of Thermal Decomposition Product Atmospheres 2272
Prediction of Incapacitation Due to Sensory and Lung Irritation 2273
Setting Tenability Criteria for Sensory/Upper Respiratory Tract and Lung Irritancy 2275
Current Concerns Regarding Effects of Sensory Irritants 2279
Incapacitating and Lethal Effects of Asphyxiant Fire Gases 2282
The Use of Small-Scale Combustion Product Toxicity Tests for Estimating Toxic Potency and Toxic Hazard in Fires 2283
Applications of Small-Scale Toxicity Test Data 2283
Essential Criteria for Test Methods 2285
Practical Methods for Toxic Hazard Assessment 2286
Examples of Small-Scale Test Methods 2287
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Test Method 2288
University of Pittsburgh Test Method 2288
German DIN 53 436 Test Method 2290
Second-Generation Test Methods 2291
Relationship Between Toxic Potencies of Materials in Small-Scale Tests and Full-Scale Fires 2300
Major Determinants of Toxicity in Fires and Small-Scale Tests 2304
Nonflaming Oxidative/Smoldering Fires 2304
Early or Well-Ventilated Flaming Fires 2305
Small-Scale Tests Replicating Well-Ventilated Flaming Conditions 2306
Toxic Potency Data Obtained from Tests Under Early, Well-Ventilated Flaming Conditions 2307
Small-Scale Tests Replicating Fully Developed Fire Conditions-Especially Postflashover Fires 2309
Results from DIN and Other Tube Furnace Methods and Full-Scale Tests 2311
Adaptation of Data from Other Small-Scale Tests 2312
General Pattern of Toxic Potency for Common Materials Under Three Fire Conditions 2312
The Conduct and Application of Small-Scale Tests in the Assessment of Toxicity and Toxic Hazard 2313
Misuse of Toxicity Test Data 2315
Appendix 2315
References 2320
978-1-4939-2565-0_63_OnlinePDF 2325
63: Assessment of Hazards to Occupants from Smoke, Toxic Gases, and Heat 2325
Introduction 2325
Fundamental Aspects of Toxicity and Toxic Hazard Assessment 2326
Life Safety Objectives of Design Codes 2326
Injuries and Deaths in Fire: Extent to Which Life Safety Objectives Are Achieved 2328
Fractional Effective Dose Methods and Application to Fire Hazard Analysis 2335
An FED Hazard Calculation Model for Time and Dose to Incapacitation and Lethality 2338
Basis of Fractional Effective Dose Methodology 2341
Application of FEC and FED to Full-Scale Compartment Fire Data 2342
Case Examples 2345
Dose/Response Relationships and Dose Estimation in the Evaluation of Toxicity 2346
The Relationships Between Concentration Inhaled, Duration of Exposure, and Toxicity 2346
Ct Product and Fractional Effective Dose 2349
Allowance for Margins of Safety and Variations in Susceptibility of Human Populations 2350
Application of FED Methodology to Deterministic and Probabilistic Hazard Modeling 2352
Derivation of a Model for the Prediction of the Effects of Optically Dense, Irritant Smoke on the Eyes and Respiratory Tract 2353
Evaluation of the Effects of Smoke on Escape Capability 2354
Deciding Whether to Enter a Smoke Contaminated Escape Route, Seek Refuge or Find an Alternative Escape Route 2354
Movement Speed in Smoke 2356
Composition and Toxic Effects of Smoke 2358
Tenability Limits and Fractional Irritant Concentrations for Sensory Irritants 2359
Post-Exposure Lung Inflammation and Survival 2362
Asphyxiation by Fire Gases and Prediction of Time to Incapacitation 2362
Asphyxiant Fire Products 2363
Carbon Monoxide 2363
A Model for the Prediction of Time to Incapacitation by CO in Fires 2366
Simple C t Exposure Dose Method 2368
Calculation of %COHb Using the Liner Uptake Stewart Model the Exponential Coburn Forster Kane Model 2369
Ct Product and Fractional Incapacitating Dose 2372
CO Washout After Fires 2373
Hydrogen Cyanide 2373
A Model for the Prediction of Time to Incapacitation by HCN in Fires 2376
Cyanide in Blood 2379
Hypoxia 2380
A Model for the Prediction of Time to Incapacitation by Hypoxia in Fires 2381
A Model for the Prediction of Hyperventilation and Time to Incapacitation by Carbon Dioxide 2383
Interactions Between Toxic Fire Gases 2385
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Effects of CO, HCN, and Low-Oxygen Hypoxia 2386
Interactions Between CO and HCN 2386
Interactions Between CO and Low-Oxygen Hypoxia 2387
Interactions Between Irritant Smoke Products and Asphyxiant Gases 2387
Summary of Overall Interactions 2388
Implications of Interactions for Predicting Time to Incapacitation in Smoke Atmospheres and Derivation of an Overall FED Expre... 2388
The Exposure of Fire Victims to Heat 2390
Heat Stroke (Hyperthermia) 2391
Skin Burns 2393
Thermal Damage to the Respiratory Tract 2397
Model of the Prediction of Time to Incapacitation by Exposure to Heat in Fires 2398
Example of a Calculation of Time to Incapacitation for Physical Fire Parameters and Irritancy 2401
Worked Example of a Simplified Life Threat Hazard Analysis 2404
Chemical Composition and Toxicity of Combustion Product Atmospheres 2407
Fire Scenarios and Victim Incapacitation 2408
Smoldering Fires 2409
Flaming Fires 2411
Pilot Study of Room-of-Origin Deaths 2413
Small Restricted-Ventilation Fires in Closed Compartments 2413
Fully Developed Fires 2421
General Comment 2423
Possible Routes to Mitigation of Toxic Hazard 2423
The Use of Fractional Effective Dose Methodology in Fire Investigation 2424
Appendix 1: Summary of Toxicity and Heat Hazard Assessment Model Calculation Equations 2426
Effects of Fire Effluent and Heat 2428
Sensory Irritancy 2431
Lethal Effects of Inhaled Irritants 2431
Tenability Limits and Hazard Calculations for Asphyxiant Gases 2432
Tenability and Hazard Calculations for Development of Pain, Incapacitation, Injury, and Death from Exposure to Heat and Burns 2434
Calculating Effects of Exposure to Convected Heat Only 2435
Appendix 2: Coburn-Forster-Kane Equation for the Uptake of Carbon Monoxide in Man 2436
Appendix 3: Tenability Limits 2438
References 2439
978-1-4939-2565-0_64_OnlinePDF 2446
64: Engineering Data 2446
Introduction 2446
Using this Chapter 2447
Using the Data Provided 2448
Quantifying Egress 2449
Subject Matter: Human Behavior in Fire 2449
Engineering Timeline 2451
Model Approaches and Data Requirements 2454
Human Behavior Data 2456
Data Collection: Context 2456
Data Collection: Techniques 2458
Data Collection: Process 2459
Data Selection and Representation 2461
Sources of Data 2461
Structure of Data Presentation 2462
Data-Sets 2464
Detection and Warning Phases: Human Aspect 2464
Pre-evacuation Phase 2465
Pre-evacuation Phase: Asleep 2480
Pre-evacuation Phase: Impaired 2486
Travel Phase 2487
Travel Phase: Horizontal Movement 2489
Travel Phase: Stair Movement (Up and Down) 2493
Travel Phase: Exits and Narrowings 2515
Travel Phase: Escalators (Up and Down) 2520
Vulnerabilities - Situational: Movement in Smoke 2531
Upright Movement in Smoke 2533
Crawling Movement in Smoke 2537
Vulnerabilities: Innate: Impaired Movement 2541
Identifying Applicable Data-Sets 2554
Using the Data 2556
Summary 2559
References 2559
978-1-4939-2565-0_65_OnlinePDF 2569
65: Liquid Fuel Fires 2569
Introduction 2569
Spill or Pool Size 2569
Fire Growth Rate 2575
Basic Theory of Flame Spread on Liquids 2576
Empirical Data 2581
Using Flame Spread Velocities to Characterize the Rate of Involvement of a Pool or Spill 2587
Fire Size 2589
Other Factors and Limitations 2599
Flame Height 2599
Fire Hazard Analysis Framework 2601
Nomenclature 2605
Greek Letters 2606
References 2606
978-1-4939-2565-0_66_OnlinePDF 2608
66: Fire Hazard Calculations for Large, Open Hydrocarbon Fires 2608
Introduction 2608
Event Tree for Flammable Material Release 2608
Hydrocarbon Pool Fires 2610
Pool Fire Geometry 2610
Thermal Radiation Hazards from Liquid Hydrocarbon Pool Fires 2614
Calculation Procedure: Flame Radiation to External Target 2617
Calculation Methods 2617
Screening Methods 2618
Detailed Methods 2622
Atmospheric Absorption 2632
Summary and General Recommendations 2637
Heat Transfer to Targets Within Pool Fires 2645
Thermal Radiation from Jet Flames 2646
Geometry of Turbulent Jet Flames 2647
Turbulent Jet Flame Height in Stagnant Surroundings 2647
Turbulent Jet Flame Length in Crosswind Conditions 2650
Turbulent Jet Flame Diameter in Crosswind Conditions 2653
Aerodynamic Effects on Flame Stability 2653
Thermal Radiation Hazards from Hydrocarbon Jet Flames 2655
Point Source Model for Jet Flame Radiation 2655
Radiative Fraction for Jet Flames 2657
Line and Cylinder Models for Jet Flame Radiation 2661
Jet Fire Impingement Exposure 2662
Unsteady Thermal Radiation Analysis 2663
Thermal Radiation from Burning Vapor Clouds 2664
Thermal Radiation from Hydrocarbon Fireballs 2669
Fireball Size and Dynamics 2669
Fireball Radiation 2671
Point Source Fireball Model 2671
Spherical Fireball Model 2671
Thermal Radiation Hazards to Personnel 2672
Summary 2675
References 2675
978-1-4939-2565-0_67_OnlinePDF 2681
67: Vapor Clouds 2681
Introduction 2681
Vapor Cloud Source 2682
Gas Source 2682
Liquid Source 2683
Spill Rate Estimate 2684
Liquid Pool Growth 2684
Pool Evaporation 2686
Liquefied Gas Source 2688
Pressure Liquefied Gas 2689
Refrigerated Liquid 2689
Vaporization 2690
Condensing Vapor Source 2690
Vapor Dispersion 2690
HeadingsSec1150002492817 2690
Determination of the Atmospheric Stability 2690
Determination of the Wind Conditions 2691
Types of Vapor Clouds 2693
Classification 2693
Characteristics of Vapor Clouds 2694
Negative Buoyancy Dominated and Stably Stratified Shear Flows 2694
Jets and Pluncs 2695
Passive Dispersion Regime 2696
Modeling 2696
Simplified Semi-empirical Models 2697
Britter and McQuaid Model for Dense Clouds 2697
Instantaneous Releases 2697
Continuous Releases 2698
Intermediate Releases 2699
Gaussian Plume for Passive Clouds 2699
TNO Method for Turbulent Jets 2701
Integral Models 2702
Shallow Layer Models 2703
Lagrangian Puff/Plume Models 2703
Full Three-Dimensional CFD Models 2703
Vapor Ignition 2704
Flammable Limits 2704
Flammability Diagram 2704
Analytical Methods for Estimating Flammable Limits for Mixtures 2705
Le Chatelier´s Principle 2706
Thermal Balance Method 2707
Testing Methodologies 2708
Ignition Sources 2708
Minimum Ignition Energy 2709
Mechanical Sparks and Static Discharges 2709
Autoignition Temperature and Hot Surface Ignition 2710
Deflagrations and Detonation 2710
Deflagrations 2710
Detonations 2711
Blast Waves 2712
Analytical Methods 2712
TNT Equivalency Method 2712
TNO Multi-energy Method 2714
Computational Methods 2717
References 2718
978-1-4939-2565-0_68_OnlinePDF 2722
68: Effects of Thermal Radiation on People: Predicting 1st and 2nd Degree Skin Burns 2722
Introduction 2722
The Skin 2722
Human Variability 2724
Sensation of Pain 2724
Initial Skin Temperature 2725
Skin Thickness 2727
Skin Burns 2728
Burn Statistics and Clinical Treatment Time 2730
Prediction of Skin Burns 2730
Prediction of Skin Burns: Simple Algorithms 2731
Comparison to More Complex Models 2738
Prediction of Skin Burns: Empirical Equations and Graphical Methods 2738
New Simplified Methods 2741
Human Variability Correction Factors 2742
Examples 2746
Conclusions 2750
Simple Algorithms 2750
Graphical Methods 2750
Empirical Equations 2750
Nomenclature 2751
Headings0002492818 2751
References 2753
978-1-4939-2565-0_69_OnlinePDF 2755
69: Flammable Gas and Vapor Explosions 2755
Pertinent Gas and Vapor Flammability Properties 2755
Closed Vessel Deflagration Pressures and Pressure Rise Times 2756
Partial Volume Deflagrations: Minimum Amount of Flammable Gas to Produce Possible Explosion Hazard 2761
Gas Explosions in Elongated and Obstructed Enclosures 2764
Detonations 2767
Blast Waves and Vapor Cloud Explosions 2773
References 2781
978-1-4939-2565-0_70_OnlinePDF 2783
70: Dust Explosions 2783
Introduction: Dust Explosibility 2783
Closed Vessel Deflagration and Ignition Parameters 2785
Partial Volume Deflagrations in Equipment and Rooms 2789
Dust Explosion Propagation Phenomena 2792
Secondary Dust Explosion Hazards 2794
Dust Explosion Scenario Examples 2795
Dust Explosion Venting and Suppression 2798
Dust Explosion Isolation Devices and Combined Protection Systems 2802
References 2807
978-1-4939-2565-0_71_OnlinePDF 2809
71: BLEVES and Fireballs 2809
BLEVEs 2809
Description of a BLEVE Event 2810
Theory of BLEVE Precipitation 2811
The Superheat Limit Theory 2811
Determination of the Superheat Limit Temperature 2812
Alternative Theory 2814
Time to BLEVE 2814
Calculating the Energy Release 2817
Percent of Stored Energy Transferred to Blast Wave 2820
Calculation of Blast Overpressures 2820
Consequence of Overpressures 2823
Sample Cases 2824
Water Tank BLEVE 2824
Propane Railcar BLEVE 2825
Fireballs 2825
Description of a Fireball Originating from a BLEVE 2826
Fireball Radiation 2827
Fireballs Resulting from Deflagration Venting (NFPA 68) 2828
Sample Cases 2830
LPG Release in Italy 2830
LNG Release in Spain 2831
Headings0002492821 2831
References 2831
978-1-4939-2565-0_72_OnlinePDF 2834
72: Introduction to Fire Risk Analysis 2834
Introduction 2834
What Is Risk? 2834
Terminology and Concepts 2836
Methods of Fire Risk Analysis 2839
Overview of the Section 2841
Activities and Resources 2842
References 2843
978-1-4939-2565-0_73_OnlinePDF 2844
73: Probability and Statistics 2844
Introduction 2844
Basic Concepts of Probability Theory 2844
Probability Theory 2844
Set 2844
Set Theory 2844
Subsets 2844
Set Operators 2844
Relationships Among the Operators 2845
Sample Space 2845
Probability Measure 2845
Probability Formulas Related to Set Operators 2846
Independence and Conditionality 2847
Random Variables and Probability Distributions 2848
Key Parameters of Probability Distributions 2849
Conditional Distributions 2851
Commonly Used Probability Distributions 2851
Uniform and Rectangular Distributions 2851
Normal Distribution (Also Called Gaussian Distribution) 2852
Log-Normal Distribution 2855
Distributions for Significance Tests 2856
Student´s t Distribution 2856
Chi-Square Distribution 2856
F Distribution 2857
Distributions for Reliability Analysis 2857
Exponential Distribution 2857
Poisson Distribution 2859
Gamma Distribution (Also Called Erlang Distribution) 2859
Weibull Distribution 2860
Extreme Value Distributions 2861
Pareto Distribution 2863
Discrete Probability Distributions 2863
Bernoulli Distribution 2863
Binomial Distribution 2864
Geometric Distribution 2865
Negative Binomial Distribution (Also Called Pascal Distribution) 2865
Hypergeometric Distribution 2865
Multinomial Distribution 2866
Beta Distribution 2867
Frequency Histograms 2867
Random Number Generation 2869
Inversion Method 2869
Basic Concepts of Statistical Analysis 2870
Statistic 2870
Statistical Analysis 2870
Statistical Inference 2870
Exploratory Data Analysis 2872
Key Parameters of Descriptive Statistics 2872
Correlation, Regression, and Analysis of Variance 2874
Correlation 2874
Correlation Coefficient (Also Called the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient) 2874
Regression 2876
Method of Least Squares 2876
Regression Coefficients 2876
Hypothesis Testing in Classical Statistical Inference 2878
Hypothesis and Test 2878
Test of Mean: z Test 2879
Test of Difference Between Two Means: z Test 2880
Test of Proportion: z Test 2880
Test of Difference Between Two Proportions: z Test 2880
Test of Mean: t Test 2881
Test of Variance: Chi-Square Test 2883
Test of Goodness of Fit to a Distribution: Chi-Square Test 2883
Contingency Test of Independence: Chi-Square Test 2886
Nonparametric Tests 2887
Sampling Theory 2887
Characterization of Data from Experimentation or Modeling 2888
Data Variability 2888
Testing Models for Goodness of Fit 2889
Reference 2891
978-1-4939-2565-0_74_OnlinePDF 2892
74: Reliability, Availability, and Maintainabilityƒ 2892
Introduction 2892
Basic Concepts 2893
Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability 2893
Individual Components 2893
Systems 2894
Conducting a Reliability, Availability, or Maintainability Analysis 2894
Reliability Analysis of Nonrepairable Items 2896
Probability Distributions 2897
Conditional Distributions and Hazard Rate 2901
Stress and Strength Interference Model 2904
Generic Reliability Values for Fire Protection Systems 2906
Reliability Analysis of Repairable Items 2908
Probabilistic Models for Failure Predictions 2908
Maintainability 2915
Maintainability Quantification 2916
Availability 2917
Use of Markov Modeling for Determining System Availabilities 2918
Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Schedules for Achieving Target Availability 2927
Data Analysis and Parameter Estimation 2928
Collection of Reliability Data 2928
Parameter Estimation: The Maximum Likelihood Estimator 2928
Parameter Estimation: Bayesian Analysis 2931
Accelerated Testing 2932
Some Popular Models 2933
Cautionary Remarks 2934
Software Reliability 2935
Software Reliability and Fire Risk Assessment 2936
Software Verification and Validation 2936
Human Reliability 2936
Some Relevant Definitions 2937
Some Human Error Examples 2939
The HRA Process 2940
HRA Models 2944
System Modeling and Analysis 2945
Block Diagrams 2946
Fault Trees 2949
Fault Tree Quantification 2952
Dependent and Common Cause Failures 2952
Modeling Common Cause Failures 2953
Summary 2954
Headings0002492824 2955
References 2956
978-1-4939-2565-0_75_OnlinePDF 2958
75: Building Fire Risk Analysis 2958
Introduction 2958
Building Fire Risk Characterization 2960
Methods for Gathering Building Fire Risk Information 2960
Consequence Analysis 2961
Hazard Assessment 2961
Causal Relationship of Initiating Events, Hazards, and Consequences 2965
Fire Safety Concepts Tree 2966
Assessing the Likelihood of Occurrence 2968
FN Curves 2968
As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP) 2969
EXAMPLE: Financial Risk Assessment Using Cost-Benefit Analysis 2969
Identifying Events 2970
Estimating the Frequency of Events 2970
Estimating the Severity of the Outcome 2970
Results 2971
Cost-Benefit Analysis 2972
Study Conclusions 2972
Uncertainty, Variability, and Unknowns 2973
Building Fire Risk Analysis Approaches, Methods, and Models 2974
Risk-Cost Assessment Model 2979
FRAMEworks 2983
CRISP 2983
FRIM-MAB 2984
BuildingQRA 2985
B-RISK 2985
CUrisk 2985
Structured Technical Analysis of Risks from Fire (STAR-Fire) and Simplified Approach to Fire Risk Assessment (SAFiRE) Methods 2985
Hazard and Risk Matrices 2986
Performance Matrix 2987
The Building Fire Safety Evaluation Method (BFSEM) 2990
Guidance Documents for Fire Risk Assessment 2992
SFPE Engineering Guide-Fire Risk Assessment 2992
NFPA 551, Guide for the Evaluation of Fire Risk Assessments 2993
BS 7974-7, Probabilistic Risk Assessment 2994
ISO 16732-1:2012 Fire Safety Engineering-Fire Risk Assessment 2996
Textbooks 2997
Summary 2998
References 2998
Further Readings 3003
978-1-4939-2565-0_76_OnlinePDF 3009
76: Uncertainty 3009
Introduction 3009
Understanding and Identifying Uncertainty 3010
Sources of Uncertainty 3010
Uncertainty and Variability 3011
Identifying Sources of Uncertainty in Fire Protection Engineering 3012
Uncertainties in the Design Process: Problem of Switchover 3015
Difficulties with Uncertainty Analysis and Complexity 3018
Treatment of Uncertainty with Safety Factors 3019
Implied Versus Explicit Safety Factors 3020
Use of Safety Factors in Prescriptive and Performance Codes 3020
Selecting an Appropriate Factor of Safety 3020
Combining Safety Factors 3021
Derivation of Safety Factors 3022
Linking Safety Factor and Failure Probability 3022
Techniques for the Quantitative Treatment of Uncertainty 3023
Techniques for Quantifying Measurement Uncertainty 3023
Techniques for Assessing Uncertainty in Analysis Parameters, Assumptions, and Value Parameters 3024
Techniques for Assessing Uncertainty and Sensitivity in Complex Models 3025
Generalized Information Theory (GIT) 3029
Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Technique 3029
Application of Uncertainty Analysis to Fire Safety Engineering Calculations 3030
Overview of the Performance-Based Design Process with Uncertainty 3030
Steps 1-3: Define Scope, Goals, and Objectives 3031
Step 4: Develop Probabilistic Statement of Performance 3032
Step 5: Develop a Distribution of Design Fire Scenarios 3033
Step 5a: Select a Calculation Procedure(s) 3034
Step 5b: Identify Uncertain Input Parameters 3034
Step 5c: Generate a Distribution of Design Fire Curves 3034
Step 5d: Define Distributions of and Model Correlations Among Other Input Parameters 3034
Step 5e: Select a Sampling Method and Determine the Number of Scenarios 3035
Step 6: Develop Candidate Designs 3035
Step 7: Evaluate Candidate Designs 3035
Step 7a: Calculate a Set of Values for Each Outcome Criterion 3035
Step 7b: Determine Sensitivity to Elements of the Probabilistic Statement of Performance 3036
Step 7c: Evaluate the Base Case 3037
Step 7d: Determine the Effect of Each Candidate Design on Each of the Scenarios 3039
Step 7e: Evaluate Uncertainty Importance 3039
Step 8: Judge a Design´s Acceptability Based on All Four Elements of Probabilistic Statement of Performance 3040
Steps 9-10: Select a Final Design and Prepare Documentation 3040
Application of Uncertainty to Cost-Benefit Models, Improving Regulation, and Overall Decision Making 3041
Decision Making Under Uncertainty 3041
Available Software That Incorporates Uncertainty 3042
Example of Cost-Benefit Model with Variability and Uncertainty 3043
Treatment of Variability and Uncertainty 3043
Uncertainty in Cost-Benefit and Decision Analysis Models 3045
Uncertainty in Probabilistic Risk Assessment 3045
Definition of the Problem 3045
Role of the PRA in the Decision 3045
Analysis of Uncertainty 3046
Comparison of PRA Results with the Acceptance Criteria 3053
Uncertainties in Fire Modeling and Egress Modeling 3055
Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) 3055
CFAST 3056
ASET-B 3056
Heat Detector Models 3057
DETACT 3057
Uncertainties in Egress Modeling 3057
Uncertainties in FPE Measurements and Test Standards 3058
Individual Measurements (HRR, Temperature, Burn Patterns) 3058
Uncertainty in Fire Test Standards 3059
Use of Uncertainty to Determine Effectiveness 3060
Uncertainty in Estimating Effectiveness of Sprinklers for Fire Control 3060
Decisions on Needed Water Demand 3060
Summary 3061
References 3061
978-1-4939-2565-0_77_OnlinePDF 3065
77: Decision Analysis 3065
Introduction 3065
Decision Classifications 3067
Decision Making Under Certainty 3068
Decision Making Under Risk 3068
Decision Making Under Uncertainty 3069
Summary Example 3071
Multiobjective Decisions 3072
Terminology 3072
Simple Multicriteria Illustration 3074
Fire Safety Attribute Weighting 3077
The Hierarchy Philosophy 3078
Effectiveness Matrices 3078
Weighting Methods Used in Fire Safety Evaluation 3079
Edinburgh Cross-Impact Analysis 3079
Hierarchical Cross-Impact Analysis (HCIA) Methodology 3080
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) 3081
Measurement 3082
Considerations 3083
Scaling 3083
Panels of Experts 3084
Committee 3084
Nominal Group 3084
Delphi Panel 3085
Computer Conferencing 3085
DACAM Group 3085
Consensus 3086
Definitive Consensus 3086
Alternative Stability Approach 3086
Comparative Consensus 3087
Compound Consensus 3087
References 3087
978-1-4939-2565-0_78_OnlinePDF 3090
78: Data for Engineering Analysis 3090
Introduction 3090
Types of Analysis and Data Needs 3090
Incident Data 3093
National Fire Incident Reporting System 3093
National Estimates from NFIRS and NFPA´s Fire Department Experience Survey 3095
Handling Unknown Data 3096
Data Half-Truths and Myths 3101
Field Observation Data 3103
Judgments and Opinions 3103
Inspections and Testing 3104
Simulations and Laboratory Studies 3104
Incident and Other Field Data on Systems Performance 3105
Product Life Tracking Systems 3105
Usage and Exposure Data 3106
Heating Example of Matching Coding Categories Between Databases 3106
Occupancy Example of Matching Coding Categories Between Databases 3107
Storage Shed Warehouse 3108
Occupant Characteristics 3108
Laboratory Data 3110
Data Sources 3111
Incident or Event Data 3111
Sources of Usage and Exposure Data 3112
Laboratory Data 3113
References 3113
978-1-4939-2565-0_79_OnlinePDF 3115
79: Measuring Consequences in Economic Terms 3115
Introduction 3115
Components of Total National Fire Cost 3115
Indirect Loss Estimation: NFPA Approach to U.S. Losses 3116
Indirect Loss Estimation: Unpublished U.K. Study 3118
Indirect Loss Estimation: Private Sector Level 3119
Indirect Loss: Illustrations from Some Major U.S. Fires 3120
Economic Costs Not Usually Calculated Within the Core 3121
Costs and Benefits Based on Level 3121
Measurement Approaches in the Insurance Industry 3123
Monetary Equivalents for Nonmonetary Costs and Consequences 3123
Deaths and Injuries 3123
Value of Donated Time 3125
Utility Theory 3126
Utility and Disutility 3128
Utility Functions 3128
Specific Probability Distributions for Utility Analysis of Fire Safety Choices 3131
References 3132
978-1-4939-2565-0_80_OnlinePDF 3134
80: Computer Simulation for Fire Risk Analysis 3134
Introduction 3134
Types of Models 3134
Simulation Models 3135
Types of Simulation Models 3136
Discrete Event Simulation Models 3136
Continuous Simulation Models 3137
Monte Carlo Procedures 3139
Sensitivity Analysis 3140
Applications 3142
CRISP II (Computation of Risk Indices by Simulation Procedures) [7] 3142
FIRE STATION [8], Optimum Fire Station Location for Minimum Loss of Life and Property 3142
Suites or Collections of Fire Protection Computer-Simulated Procedures 3142
Model Validation 3145
Summary 3146
Appendix A: Handling Uncertainty 3146
Generating Random Numbers 3146
Generating Probability Distributions for Monte Carlo Studies 3146
Appendix B: Analysis of Model Output 3149
Local Linearization 3149
Additivity of Variances 3149
Appendix C: Monte Carlo Simulation Example 3150
Introduction 3150
Setup 3151
Analysis 3151
References 3151
Further Readings 3153
978-1-4939-2565-0_81_OnlinePDF 3154
81: Engineering Economics 3154
Introduction 3154
Cash-Flow Concepts 3154
Time Value of Money 3154
Cash-Flow Diagrams 3155
Notation 3155
Interest Calculations 3155
Interest Factors 3156
Compound Amount Factor 3156
Present Worth 3156
Interest Periods 3157
Series Payments 3158
Other Interest Calculation Concepts 3159
Software Tools for Interest Calculations 3160
Comparison of Alternatives 3160
Discount Rate 3160
Present Worth 3161
Annual Cost 3162
Rate of Return 3162
Benefit-Cost Analysis 3163
Identification of Relevant Benefits and Costs 3163
Measurement of Benefits and Costs 3164
Selection of Best Alternative 3164
Treatment of Uncertainty 3166
Dealing with Extreme Events 3166
Three-Step Protocol 3166
Standards Development 3167
Cost-Effectiveness Tool 3168
Appendix 1: Symbols and Definitions of Economic Parameters 3171
Appendix 2: Functional Forms of Compound Interest Factors 3171
Appendix 3: Interest Tables 3172
References 3173
978-1-4939-2565-0_82_OnlinePDF 3175
82: Fire Risk Indexing 3175
Introduction 3175
Fire Risk Indexing 3175
Applications 3176
Significance 3177
Examples of Approaches to Fire Risk Indexing 3177
Insurance Rating 3177
Specific Commercial Property Evaluation Schedule 3178
Gretener Method 3178
Dow´s Fire and Explosion Index 3179
Index Calculation 3180
Risk Analysis 3182
Mond Fire, Explosion, and Toxicity Index 3182
Fire Safety Evaluation System 3183
Equivalency Concept 3184
Fire Zone Concept 3184
Risk 3184
Fire Safety Parameters 3185
Fire Safety Redundancies 3185
Equivalency Evaluations 3185
Supplemental Requirements 3185
Optimization 3188
Derivative Applications 3189
Hierarchical Approach 3190
Decision-Making Levels 3190
Generalized Procedure 3191
Attribute Weighting 3192
Evaluating Attributes 3192
Areas of Application 3193
Criteria for Development and Evaluation of Fire Risk Ranking 3193
Computer Models for Fire Risk Indexing 3195
Summary 3196
References 3197
978-1-4939-2565-0_83_OnlinePDF 3200
83: Risk-Informed Industrial Fire Protection Engineering 3200
Introduction 3200
Hazard Evaluation 3200
Consequence Analysis 3202
Fire Risk Evaluation Method Selection 3203
Class A Decisions: Qualitative Risk Analysis 3203
Class B Decisions: FPS-LOPA 3205
FPS-LOPA Basics 3205
LOPA Definition and Steps 3206
Step 1: Develop Accident Scenarios 3207
Step 2: Determine Initiating Fire Event Likelihood 3208
Step 3: Quantify the Performance of Independent Fire Protection Layers (IFPLs) 3211
Step 4: Evaluate Target Vulnerability 3214
Step 5: Estimate Scenario Risk 3215
Step 6: Conduct Risk Tolerance Comparison 3216
Step 7: Make Decisions on Risk Reduction 3216
Step 8: Monitor the Risk 3217
Simple Example to Illustrate FPS-LOPA Steps 3217
Step 1: Develop Accident Scenarios 3217
Step 2: Determine Initiating Fire Event Likelihood 3218
Step 3: Assess Performance Reliability of Independent Fire Protection Layers (IFPLs) 3219
Step 4: Evaluate Target Vulnerability 3220
Step 5: Estimate Scenario Risk 3220
Step 6: Conduct Risk Tolerance Comparison 3221
Step 7: Make Decisions on Risk Reduction 3221
Step 8: Monitor the Risk 3223
Class C Decisions: Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) 3224
Summary 3225
Nomenclature 3226
References 3226
Further Readings 3227
978-1-4939-2565-0_84_OnlinePDF 3228
84: Product Fire Risk Analysis 3228
Introduction 3228
Steps in a Product Fire Risk Analysis 3229
Defining the Scope of Products to Be Analyzed 3232
Specifying the Class of Properties 3233
Specifying Goals, Objectives, and Measures 3233
Setting Assumptions 3234
Specifying Fire Scenarios: Using Fire Size to Shape Calculation of Change in Consequences 3235
Specifying Fire Scenarios: Characterizing the Environment the Fire Is Growing Into 3235
Specifying Fire Scenarios: Exposure of People or Property 3237
Specifying Fire Scenarios: Fire Protection Systems and Features 3238
Identifying Test Methods and Models 3239
Identify Data Sources 3240
References 3242
978-1-4939-2565-0_85_OnlinePDF 3243
85: Health Care Application of Quantitative Fire Risk Analysis 3243
Introduction 3243
Hospital Ward System Limits 3244
General Assumptions and Limitations 3244
Hospital Ward Conditions 3245
Patients and Members of Staff 3246
Fire Frequency 3247
Fire Growth 3248
The Event Tree 3249
Model Description 3249
Available Escape Time 3249
Detection Time 3252
Model Uncertainty 3252
Movement Time 3252
Calculation of the Consequences 3253
Presenting the Risk 3253
Societal Risk 3253
Individual Risk 3254
Extended Quantitative Risk Analysis Procedure 3255
Summary 3257
References 3257
978-1-4939-2565-0_86_OnlinePDF 3259
86: The Building Envelope: Fire Spread, Construction Features and Loss Examples 3259
General Mechanisms of Exterior Fire Spread 3259
Fire Spread Between Buildings Separated by Distance 3259
Vertical Building Fire Spread 3262
Building Exterior Wall and Enclosure Systems 3265
Cavity Wall 3265
Barrier Wall 3267
Mass Wall or Solid Wall 3267
Curtain Wall Construction 3268
Curtain Walls and the Building Edge Condition 3271
Curtain Wall Components: Performance Factors 3273
Double Skin Façades 3276
Exterior Cladding Materials for Wall Construction 3280
Combustible Components in the Wall Cavity 3284
Fire Performance Tests for Exterior Cladding 3286
Glass and Glass Performance 3287
Fire Behavior at Exterior Wall Openings 3289
Loss History: Vertical Fire Spread at the Exterior Façade 3293
Risk Assessment Factors 3296
References 3298
978-1-4939-2565-0_87_OnlinePDF 3300
87: Wildland Fires 3300
Introduction 3300
The Wildland Fire Context 3301
Fire Behavior 3303
Mechanisms of Fire Spread 3303
Basic Mechanisms 3303
Parameters 3304
Extreme Fire Behavior 3306
Eruptive Fires 3306
Crown Fires 3307
Spot Fires 3308
Fire Whirls 3308
Peat Fires 3309
Models and Simulators 3309
Empirical Models 3309
Semi-empirical Models 3310
Physical Models 3311
Simplified Physical Models 3311
Detailed Physical Models 3312
Simulators 3313
Fire Danger 3314
Fire Impact 3315
Heat Transfer 3315
Firebrands 3316
Summary 3316
References 3316
978-1-4939-2565-0_88_OnlinePDF 3320
88: Fires in Vehicle Tunnels 3320
Introduction 3320
Full Scale Fire Experiments in Tunnels 3320
The EUREKA EU499 Fire Tests (1992) 3321
Large Fire Test in the 2nd Benelux Tunnel (2001) 3323
The Runehamar Tunnel Fire Tests (2003) 3324
Fire Tests at Carleton University (2011) 3325
Subway Car Tests During Project METRO (2011) 3325
Observed Tunnel Fire Characteristics 3326
Multiple-Vehicle Fires and Fire Spread 3328
Considerations for Design Fires for Vehicle Tunnels 3331
Using Ventilation Systems for Fire Safety in Tunnels 3333
Passive Fire Protection: Tunnel Lining Systems 3335
Water Spray Systems 3336
Concluding Comments 3339
Nomenclature 3339
References 3339
978-1-4939-2565-0_89_OnlinePDF 3343
89: Fire Risk Analysis for Nuclear Power Plants 3343
Introduction 3343
Nuclear Power Plant PRA and Fire PRA 3346
History of Fire PRA 3348
Fire PRA Guidance and Standards 3350
Fire PRA Overview 3352
Fire PRA Process 3353
Fire PRA Elements 3355
Plant Definition and Partitioning 3355
Equipment Selection 3356
Cable Selection and Tracing 3357
Qualitative Screening 3358
Plant Response Model 3358
Fire Frequency Analysis 3359
Fire Scenario Selection and Analysis 3361
Circuit Analysis 3367
Circuit Failure Mode Analysis 3367
Circuit Failure Mode Likelihood Analysis 3368
Human Reliability Analysis 3368
Fire Risk Quantification 3369
Uncertainty Analysis 3370
Fire PRA Documentation 3371
The Use of Fire Modeling Tools in Fire PRA 3372
Fire Environment Analysis 3372
Equipment Response Analysis 3375
Fire Detection and Suppression Analysis 3375
Fire Barrier Analysis 3377
Current Activities and Future Directions 3378
Risk-Informing Plant Fire Protection Programs 3379
Other Uses of Fire PRA 3379
Uncertainty in Fire PRA and Current Research 3380
Summary 3382
References 3382
978-1-4939-2565-0_90_OnlinePDF 3387
90: Fire Risk in Mass Transportation 3387
Introduction 3387
Fire Risk in Transportation Systems 3388
Aviation Fire Safety 3388
Rail Fire Safety 3390
Fire Safety in Motor Coaches and Buses 3392
Fire Safety at Sea 3394
Fire Risk-Informed Decision Making in Air, Rail, and Sea Transportation 3396
Risk-Based Decision Making Defined 3396
Fire Safety Objectives 3397
Risk-Based Decision-Making Methods 3398
Fire Risk Decision Making in Air Transportation 3398
FAA System Safety Process 3398
Cost-Benefit Analyses 3399
ALARP Analyses 3400
Risk Effectiveness 3400
Fire Risk Decision Making in Rail Transportation 3401
Regulation of Combustible Materials 3401
Decision Tree as Decision-Making Tool 3401
NFPA 130, Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems 3402
Fire Risk Decision Making in Motor Coaches or Buses 3403
Bus Characteristics 3404
Regulation of Combustible Materials 3404
Other Risk Reduction Measures 3405
Bus Fire Hazard Analysis 3405
Fire Hazard in Passenger Road Vehicles 3406
Fire Risk Decision Making at Sea 3407
U.S. Coast Guard Safety Alert 3407
Analytical Hierarchy Processes (AHP) 3409
NFPA 301, Code for Safety to Life from Fire on Merchant Vessels 3409
Summary 3410
References 3410
978-1-4939-2565-0_BookBackmatter_OnlinePDF 3414
Appendix 1: Conversion Factors 3414
Appendix 1: Conversion Factors 3414
Conversion Factor Tables [3] 3429
Appendix 2: Thermophysical Property Data 3442
Appendix 3: Fuel Properties and Combustion Data 3454
Appendix 4: Configuration Factors 3493
Appendix 5: Piping Properties 3500
References 3510
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