Agricultural Biomass Based Potential Materials (eBook)

Preface 6
Foreword 7
Contents 8
About the Editors 11
Contributors 13
Potential Utilization of Kenaf Biomass in Different Applications 18
Introduction 19
Physicochemical Characteristics of Kenaf Fiber 22
Physical Properties of Kenaf Fiber 22
Chemical Composition 24
Kenaf Fiber 24
Kenaf Seed Oil 24
Mechanical Properties 25
Integrated Industrial Applications of Kenaf 26
Pulp and Paper 27
Magnetic Paper 30
Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) Panels 31
Animal Bedding and Poultry Litter 31
Microfiltration Membranes 31
Adsorption Material 32
Adsorption of Copper (II) 32
Adsorption of Hazardous Dye 33
Oil and Chemical Absorbents 33
Biologically Active Acidic Oligosaccharides 34
Geotextiles 34
Reinforcements in Composite 34
Automobile Industries 35
Preparation of Activated Carbon 38
Construction and Housing Industry 39
Stoves in Cooking Mode 39
Food Packaging Industry 39
High-Protein Source Feed 40
Livestock Feed 40
Human Feed 40
Medical Application 40
Essential Oils and Volatiles from Leaves 41
Fuel and Bioenergy Production 42
Biofuel Production 42
Anaerobic Digestion 42
Biohydrogen 43
Solid Fuel 43
New Application of Kenaf Fiber 43
Conclusions 44
References 44
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer for Structural Application 52
Introduction 53
Theoretical Model to Estimate Strength and Stiffness of Glulam Beam 54
Evaluation of NFRP in Glulam Beam Strength and Stiffness 55
Mechanical Properties 55
Theoretical Evaluation 55
Numerical Simulation 56
Results and Discussion 57
Theoretical Values 57
Numerical Values 64
Conclusion 65
References 66
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Potential, Applications, and Properties 67
Introduction to Composite Materials 67
Importance of Composites 68
Applications of Composites 68
Natural Fiber Reinforcement 69
Classification of Natural Fibers 70
Plant Fiber and Their Sources 70
Animal Fiber and Their Sources 70
Mineral Fibers and Their Sources 70
Natural Fiber Composite Potential 71
Properties of Composite 75
Properties of Plant Fiber Composites 75
Jute Composites 75
Cotton Composites 78
Sisal Composites 78
Flax Composites 81
Properties of Animal Fiber Composite 83
Properties of Mineral Fiber Composites 84
Conclusion 85
References 85
Effects of Nanotechnology on Fluid Flow in Agricultural and Wood-Based Composite Materials 89
Introduction 90
Gas Permeability Measurement 92
Liquid Permeability Measurement 95
Permeability in Nanomaterial-Treated Wood Composites 95
Thermal Conductivity in Wood-Composite Mat 98
Conclusions 102
References 103
Composites from Bagasse Fibers, Its Characterization and Applications 106
Introduction 106
Surface Modification Methods (Chemical Treatment) of Bagasse Fibers 107
Alkaline-Based Treatment 107
Silane Treatment 108
Acetylation Treatment 108
Benzoylation Treatment 108
Processing Techniques for Composite Manufacturing 109
Hand Laminating (or Wet Layup) 109
Filament Winding 109
Pultrusion 109
Compression Molding 110
Injection Molding 111
Integration into Matrix and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Composites 111
Integration into Thermoset Polymer 111
Integration into Thermoplastic Polymer 119
Morphological Studies of Bagasse Fibers in Polymer Composites 127
Advantages of Bagasse Fiber Reinforcements in Polymer Composites 132
Summary/Conclusion 132
Future Trends/Applications 132
References 133
Life Cycle Assessment of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites 135
Introduction 136
The Life Cycle Assessment Method 137
Application of LCA for Natural Fiber Polymer Composites 142
Conclusion and Future Perspectives 150
References 153
Tensile, Oxygen Barrier and Biodegradation Properties of Rice Husk-Reinforced Polyethylene Blown Films 156
Introduction 157
Materials and Methods 158
Materials 158
Film Blowing 158
Experimental Techniques 159
Morphological Analysis 159
Mechanical Measurements 159
Permeability Measurements 159
Biodegradability Test 160
Results and Discussion 160
Morphological Analysis 160
Mechanical Measurements 161
Permeability Measurements 164
Biodegradability Studies 165
Conclusions 166
References 166
Extraction of Lignin from Biomass for Biodiesel Production 168
Introduction 168
Biomass 169
Biodiesel 171
History of Biodiesel 171
Biodiesel as an Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engine 173
Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodiesel 175
Sources of Biodiesel 176
Global Production of Biodiesel 179
Lignin 180
Chemical and Physical Properties of Lignin 181
Recovery of Lignins 182
Kraft Lignin Recovery 182
Solvent (Organosolv) Lignin Recovery 184
Recovery of Lignin from Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass 184
Steam Explosion Lignin 185
Applications of Lignin 185
Production of Biodiesel from Lignin 186
Steam Gasification/Pyrolysis of Kraft Lignin for Biofuel 187
Lignin Hydrocracking for Biofuel 188
Hydrogenation of Black Liquor 188
References 189
Potential Agrowastes for Biofuels 193
Introduction 194
Types of Biofuels 194
Biofuels 194
Biogas 196
Biogas from Agricultural Wastes 196
Biohydrogen 197
Hydrogen from Agricultural Wastes 197
Biodiesel 200
Biodiesel from Agricultural Residues 200
Bioethanol 200
Bioethanol from Agricultural Residues 201
Future Prospective and Conclusion 201
References 201
Utilization of Oilseed Cakes for Human Nutrition and Health Benefits 203
Introduction 204
Processing of Oilseed Cakes for Health-Benefiting Products 205
Carbohydrates 205
Polyphenols 208
Biological Activities of Phenolics from Seed Cakes 209
Protein 214
Utilization of Oilseed Cakes for Protein Sources 214
Bioactive Protein Hydrolysates from Bioconversion of Oilseed Protein Isolates 226
ACE Inhibitory Activity of Protein Hydrolysates 226
Antioxidant Activity of Protein Hydrolysates 227
Inhibition of Endothelial Isoform of Nitric Oxide Synthases 228
Antinutritive Compounds of Oilseed Cakes 229
Removal of Antinutrients from Oilseed Cakes 233
Conclusion and Future Perspective 235
References 235
Bamboo Biomass: Various Studies and Potential Applications for Value-Added Products 242
Introduction 243
Taxonomy and Distribution 244
Ecological Studies 244
Molecular Studies 245
Application of Bamboo Biomass 248
Food and Feedstock 248
Production of Biofuel 249
Building Material 249
Musical Instruments 249
Paper and Pharmaceutical Industries 250
Textile Engineering 250
Cosmetic Industry 251
Sports Industry 251
Conclusion and Future Prospects 251
References 252
Mesoporous Silica Powder for Dental Restoration Composites from Rice Husk: A Green Sol–Gel Synthesis 255
Introduction 255
Materials and Experimental Methods 257
Preparation of SS 257
Chemical Synthesis of Silica Particles 257
Chemical Characterization of Nanopowder 258
Results and Discussion 259
Preparation of Silica Particles 259
Optimisation of Reaction Parameters 259
Ethanol Effect 259
pH Effect 260
Water Concentration Effect 263
FTIR and XRD Analysis 263
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy 264
Conclusions 267
References 267
Rheological Properties and Processing of Polymer Blends with Micro- and Nanofibrillated Cellulose 269
Introduction 270
Fibrillation and Processing of Cellulose Fibers 274
Selection of Resources for MFC/NFC 274
Fibrillation of Cellulose Fibers 275
Rheological Characteristics of Fibrillated Cellulose Suspensions 279
Colloidal Suspension Rheology 279
Rheometer Types 280
Influence of Fibrillation 282
Parametrical Influence on Rheological Behavior 283
Rheological Properties of Modified MFC/NFC 290
Rheological Characteristics of Polymer Blend with Fibrillated Cellulose 292
Conclusions and Perspectives 294
References 295
Optimization of Admixture and Three-Layer Particleboard Made from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch and Rubberwood Clones 302
Introduction 303
Materials and Methods 305
Raw Material Preparation 305
Manufacture of Particleboard 305
Results and Discussion 306
Bending Properties 307
Internal Bonding 308
Dimensional Stability 309
Conclusions 310
References 311
Characterization and Use of Coir, Almond, Apricot, Argan, Shells, and Wood as Reinforcement in the Polymeric Matrix in Order to Valorize These Products 313
Introduction 314
Nutshells’ Characterization 315
Chemical Composition 315
Structural Properties 316
Mechanical Properties 317
Morphological Properties 318
Thermal Properties 319
Use of Shells as Reinforcement in Thermoplastic Matrix 320
Problematic 322
Processing Techniques for Polymer Composites 323
Composite Characterization 324
Structural Properties 325
Morphological Properties 325
Thermal Properties 329
Mechanical Properties of Composites 332
Melt Rheological 338
Conclusion 344
Future Perspective 345
References 345
Algae-Derived Biomass for Sustainable and Renewable Biofuel Production 348
Introduction 349
Biomass 350
Major Differences Between Biomass and Fossil Fuels 351
Agro-Based Biomass Resources 351
Algae-Based Biomass 352
Potentials of Algae-Based Biomass in Biodiesel Production 355
Chemistry of Algae-Derived Biofuel Production, Harvesting, and Extraction 357
Open Pond Method 359
Closed Pond and Photobioreactor Method 359
Optimization of Lipid Production and Synthesis of Microalgae 361
Nutrient-Induced Stress 362
Temperature-Induced Stress 362
Salinity/pH-Induced Stress 363
Light-Induced Stress 364
Harvesting of Algae-Based Biomass 365
Harvesting by Flocculation 366
Harvesting by Centrifugation 367
Harvesting by Filtration 367
Harvesting by Flotation 368
Algae-Based Biomass Oil Extraction 369
Mechanical Cell Disruption Method 370
Drawbacks of Mechanical Cell Disruption Methods 371
Nonmechanical Methods 371
Transesterification and Biodiesel Production 372
Summary and Conclusion 374
References 375
Empty Fruit Bunches in the Race for Energy, Biochemical, and Material Industry 381
Introduction 382
Oil Palm Biomass 382
Empty Fruit Bunches 383
Basic Properties of EFB Fibers 383
Fiber Bundle Anatomy 384
Fiber Morphology 384
Chemical Composition and Inorganic Elements of EFB 387
Specific Tensile Stress of EFB 388
Issues of EFB Fiber 389
Panelboard 390
Solid Biofuel (for the Production of Heat and Electricity) 391
Biochemical Derivatives (Using Hydrolysis and Fermentation to Make Fuels and Chemicals) 391
Conclusion 392
References 393
Extraction of Lignin from Biomass for Biofuel Production 396
Introduction 396
Lignocellulosic Biomass 397
Second-Generation Biofuel 398
Biomass Used 398
Sugarcane Bagasse 398
Rapeseed Residues 399
Switchgrass 399
Barley and Wheat Straw 399
Biofuel Produced 400
Bioethanol 400
Biodiesel 400
Biogas 401
Lignin Extraction from Biomass 401
Chemical Pretreatment Methods for Lignin Extraction 401
Alkali Treatment 401
Ionic Treatment 403
Biological Pretreatment Methods for Lignin Extraction 403
Enzymatic Hydrolysis Followed by Organic Solvent 403
Fungal Treatment 404
Advantages of Lignin Extraction 404
Limitations of Lignin Extraction from Biomass 404
Conclusion and Future Prospects 404
References 405
Biomass Pellet Technology: A Green Approach for Sustainable Development 408
Introduction 409
Sources of Biomass 412
Woody Residues 413
Perennial Plantation Crop Residues 415
Agricultural Residues (Annual Crops) 415
Energy Crops 416
Animal Waste 417
Municipal Solid Waste 418
Characteristics of Biomass 418
Biomass Composition 418
Properties of Biomass/fuel Pellets 421
Physical Properties 422
Chemical Properties 423
Overview of Pelletisation Process 424
Pelletisation Methods: Types of Pelleting Units 424
Pretreatment 424
Pelleting and Post-pelleting 425
Binding Mechanism 425
Effect of Pelleting Properties on the Quality of Pellets 426
Current Global Status of Biomass Pellet Technology 428
Opportunities and Challenges for the Development of Pellet Market 431
References 434
Biomass: An Ageless Raw Material for Biofuels 439
Introduction 440
Chemicals for Biomass 443
Char from Biomass 443
Adhesives from Biomass 444
Valorization of Biomass 445
First-Generation Biofuels 446
Second-Generation Biofuels 448
Third-Generation Biofuels 449
Fourth-Generation Biofuels 450
Biofuels by Region 451
Barriers to the Development of Biofuels 453
Net GHG Emissions 453
Deforestation and Loss of Biodiversity 454
Impact on Food Prices 455
Competition for Water Resources 455
Conclusion 456
References 457
Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia 459
Introduction 460
Sources of Biomass 462
Agricultural Biomass 462
Municipal Waste 463
Sewage 464
Forestry 464
Woodfuel 464
Wastes from Hospitals 465
Biofuels 465
Biogas 465
Biodiesel 465
Bioethanol 466
Bioenergy Conversion Techniques 467
Thermochemical Conversion 468
Combustion 468
Gasification 468
Pyrolysis 469
Other Processes 470
Biochemical Conversion 470
Fermentation 470
Anaerobic Digestion 470
Mechanical Extraction 472
Biomass Energy Programmes 472
Conclusion 473
References 473
Chemical Processes and Reaction By-products Involved in the Biorefinery Concept of Biofuel Production 475
Introduction 476
Biorefinery Concept/System 478
Physical Conversion Products 478
Mechanical Extraction 478
Briquetting of Biomass 479
Chemical Conversion Products 480
Chemical Hydrolysis 480
Cellulose 480
Hemicellulose 481
Lignin 481
Solvent Extraction 482
Supercritical Water Conversion of Biomass 482
Biological Conversion Products 484
Anaerobic Digestion 484
Hydrolysis 484
Acidification/Acidogenesis 485
Acetogenesis 485
Methanogenesis 485
Fermentation 486
Enzymatic Reaction 487
Thermochemical Conversion Products 488
Liquefaction 488
Pyrolysis 489
Gasification 490
Combustion 490
Conclusion 490
References 491
Chemical Modifications and Properties of Coir Fibers Biocomposites 494
Introduction 495
Alkali Treatment 496
Benzenediazonium Salt Treatments 500
O-Hydroxybenzene Diazonium Salt Treatment 502
Some Other Possible Chemical Modification of Coir Fiber 504
Succinic Anhydride Treatments 504
Acrylonitrile Treatment 505
Maleic Anhydride Treatment 505
Epoxide Treatment 505
Alkyl Halide Treatment 506
?-Propiolactone Treatments 506
Oxidation of Coir Fiber 506
Conclusion and Future Perspective 507
References 507