Front Cover 1
The Human Auditory System: Fundamental Organization and Clinical Disorders 4
Copyright 5
Handbook of Clinical Neurology 3rd Series 6
Foreword 8
Preface 10
Contributors 12
Contents 16
Section 1: Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Auditory System 20
Chapter 1: Auditory Pathways: Anatomy and Physiology 22
Introduction and Overview 22
The Outer and Middle ears 22
The Absolute Threshold and Relation to outer- and middle-ear Transmission 22
The Cochlea 23
Overall Anatomy 23
Anatomy in Relation to Function 23
The Output of the Cochlea 25
The Auditory Central Nervous System: Introduction to Central Processing 26
The Ventral Auditory Stream Of the Brainstem Sound Localization By Comparing Responses At the Two ears
The Anteroventral Cochlear Nucleus 27
The Medial Superior olive 28
The Lateral Superior olive 29
Outputs of the Ventral Auditory Stream of the Brainstem 29
The Dorsal Auditory Stream of the Brainstem: Complex Stimulus Analysis 30
The Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus 30
The Posteroventral Cochlear Nucleus 30
The Ventral Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus 31
The Inferior Colliculus 31
The Central Nucleus of the Inferior Colliculus 31
The External Nucleus and Dorsal Cortex of the Inferior Colliculus 32
The Medial Geniculate body 32
Overall Anatomy and Inputs 33
The Ventral Nucleus 33
Anatomy and Frequency Organization 33
Responses To sound 34
The Medial and Dorsal Nuclei of the MGB 34
The Auditory Cortex 34
Anatomic Introduction to the Auditory Cortex 36
Tonotopic Organization 36
Organization Along frequency-band Strips 37
Responses of Single Neurons: Responses In the core 37
Responses of Single Neurons: Responses In the belt 37
Cortical Processing of Sound Location 38
Cortical Processing in Relation to Stimulus Complexity 38
The Centrifugal System 40
References 41
Chapter 2: Anatomic Organization of the Auditory Cortex 46
What is Auditory Cortex? 47
Principles of Auditory Cortical Organization 47
Principle 1: Auditory Cortex Can Be Divided Into Regions 48
Principle 2: Regions of Auditory Cortex Are subdivided Into areas 49
Principle 3: Individual Areas of Auditory Cortex are Tonotopically Organized 50
Principle 4: Thalamic Inputs to Auditory Cortex Vary By Region And layer 51
MGv 52
MGd 52
MGm 52
Principle 5: The Connections of Auditory Cortex have Serial and Parallel Features 52
Serial Connections and Hierarchic Relationships 53
Core–belt–parabelt axis 53
Caudal–rostral axis 54
Parallel Connections 54
Principle 6: The auditory-related Connections of Auditory Cortex are Topographically Organized 54
Superior Temporal Cortex 55
Prefrontal and Cingulate Cortex 56
Posterior Parietal Cortex 56
Occipital Cortex 56
Anterior Parietal Cortex 57
Striatum 57
Amygdala 58
Functional Considerations 58
Correspondence of Human and non-human Primate Auditory Cortex 60
Where is Auditory Cortex in the Human brain? 60
Regions And areas 61
Concluding Remarks 63
Acknowledgments 64
References 64
Chapter 3: Development of the Auditory System 74
Introduction 74
Development of The ear 75
Behavioral Testing and Psychoacoustics 75
Coding of Auditory Features 78
Detection Of sound 78
Frequency and Intensity Discrimination 78
Loudness 79
Masking and Auditory Segregation 79
Background on Grouping and Segregation 79
Energetic Masking 80
Auditory Streaming 80
Co-modulation Masking Release 80
Informational Masking 81
Backward Masking and Auditory Maturation 82
Spatial and Binaural Hearing 83
Binaural cues 83
Measuring Localization 83
Developmental Findings on Localization 84
Binaural Unmasking 85
The Precedence Effect 86
Relationship Between Age of Development and Desirable Age of Intervention in Deaf Children 87
Conclusions 88
Acknowledgment 88
References 88
Chapter 4: Representation of Loudness in the Auditory Cortex 92
Introduction 92
Psychophysics 94
Animal Physiology 95
Human Cortical Studies 99
Acknowledgments 102
References 102
Chapter 5: Temporal Coding in the Auditory Cortex 104
Overview 104
Timescales in Auditory Perception 104
The Temporal Structure of Speech Sounds 105
Encoding of Spectrotemporal Features in the Auditory Cortex 107
Sensitivity to Temporal Modulations In the primary Auditory Cortex 107
Sensitivity to Spectrotemporal Modulations 107
Cortical Processing of Continuous Sound Streams 108
The Discretization Problem 108
Analysis At Multiple Timescales 109
Neural Oscillations as Endogenous Temporal Constraints 110
Alignment of Neuronal Excitability With Speech Timescales 111
Parallel Processing At Multiple Timescales 111
Parallel Processing in Bilateral Auditory Cortices 113
Dysfunctional Oscillatory Sampling 114
Conclusion 114
References 115
Chapter 6: Sound Localization 118
Introduction 118
Some Terms and Techniques 118
Horizontal Localization 119
Duplex Theory 119
Interaural time-difference cues 120
Interaural level-difference cues 121
Monaural Conditions 122
Vertical and Front/back Localization 122
Distance Localization 123
Motion Perception 124
Localization in Reverberant Spaces: the Precedence Effect 126
Central Representation of sound-source Locations 126
Spatial Topography in the Superior Colliculus 126
Distributed Spatial Representation in the Auditory Cortex 127
Cortical Areas Specialized for Sound Localization 129
Beyond Localization 130
References 131
Chapter 7: New Perspectives on the Auditory Cortex: Learning and Memory 136
Introduction 136
Basic Considerations and Early Findings 137
Introduction 137
Background Findings 137
Contemporary Approaches: Representational Plasticity 138
A Synthesis of Two Disciplines 138
Representational Plasticity Reveals Specificity of Auditory Cortical Dynamics 139
Representational Plasticity Across Species 139
Isn't All Auditory Learning Actually perceptual Learning? 141
Does the Primary Auditory Cortex Hold Specific Memory Traces? 141
Forms of Representational Plasticity 141
Basic Considerations of Specific Memory Traces 142
Cardinal Characteristics of Representational Plasticity 143
Generality Across Types of Acoustic Stimulus Parameters 144
Generality Across Motivational States and Tasks 145
Multiple Rule Tasks and the Role of Learning Strategy 145
Reversal and Loss of Representational Gain in A1 146
Individual Vs Group Analysis 146
Three Classes of Auditory Tasks and Representational Plasticity 148
Functions of Representational Plasticity in the Primary Auditory Cortex 149
Encoding the Behavioral Importance Of a sound 149
Reinforcement Prediction 149
Substrate of Memory Strength 150
Arguments to the Contrary 150
Is Representational Plasticity Caused By Fear Or Increased Arousal? 151
Are Tuning Shifts Spontaneous, Not Induced By Learning? 151
``But, Cortical Lesions Dont Prevent Memory´´ 152
Mechanisms of Representational Plasticity and Specific Auditory Memory 153
Neuromodulators in Representational Plasticity 153
Acetylcholine 153
Ach and Representational Plasticity 153
Ach and the Implantation of Specific Associative Behavioral Memory 154
Neural Synchrony and gamma-band Oscillations 156
Circuit and Synaptic Processes 156
Implications for Treatment of Auditory and Related Disorders 157
Memory Strength and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 158
Gamma-band Oscillations in Assessment And treatment 158
Cholinergic Implantation of Specific Memory 158
Individualized Analyses of Neural Plasticity, Learning, and Memory 159
Conclusions and General Implications 159
Primary Auditory Cortex, Learning, and Plasticity 159
Beyond Perception: the Acquisition of Meaning To sound 159
Reconceptualizing the Primary Auditory Cortex 160
Toward a New Model of the Cerebral Cortex 160
Acknowledgments 160
References 161
Chapter 8: Neural Basis of Speech Perception 168
Introduction 168
The dual-route Model of Speech Processing 168
Ventral Stream: Mapping From Sound To meaning 168
Bilateral Organization and Parallel Computation 168
Computational Asymmetries 169
Phonologic Processing and the Superior Temporal Sulcus 170
Exical -Semantic Access 171
Dorsal Stream: Mapping From Sound To action 172
The Need for Auditory-motor Integration 172
Clinical Correlates of the dual-stream model 175
Sex Differences in Language Organization 176
Summary 176
References 176
Chapter 9: Role of the Auditory System in Speech Production 180
Introduction 180
The Planning of Speech Movements 181
Brain Regions Involved in Speech Articulation 182
Neurocomputational Models Of speech Production 182
The Directions Into Velocities Of Articulators model 183
Auditory Feedback Control 184
Somatosensory Feedback Control 186
Feedforward Control 186
The GODIVA Model of Speech Sound Sequencing 188
The Hierarchical State Feedback Control model 188
Future Directions 190
Acknowledgments 191
References 191
Chapter 10: White-matter Pathways for Speech and Language Processing 196
Introduction 196
The language-relevant Brain Regions 197
Left Frontal Cortex 197
Left Temporal Cortex 198
Left Parietal Cortex 198
The Language Pathways 198
Dorsal Pathway 199
Ventral Pathway 201
Conclusions 203
References 203
Chapter 11: Neural Basis of Music Perception 206
Introduction 206
Music and the Auditory scene 206
Summarizing the Literature 206
A meta-analysis of the Neuroimaging Literature 207
Musical Properties of Isolated Auditory Objects 207
Pitch Chroma 207
Timbre 209
Complex Musical Objects and Their Combination 211
Interval, Contour, and Melody 212
Familiar Melodies 216
Melody and Song 216
Harmony And key 216
Harmonic Sequences 217
Rhythm And meter 217
Musical Expertise and Plasticity in the Auditory Cortex 218
Music Beyond the Auditory Cortex 221
Acknowledgments 221
References 221
Chapter 12: Music and Language: Relations and Disconnections 226
Introduction 226
Music and Language: Structural and Functional Origins 226
Structure Rooted In sound 226
Communication in Context 227
Temporal Processing in Music And language 227
Rhythm as a ``temporal map´´ 228
Regularity and Variability in Temporal Structure 228
Neural Basis of Temporal Processing: Oscillatory Rhythms 229
Music and Language: Models of Learning and Plasticity 230
Rule-based Learning 230
Learning Trajectories in Music and Language 231
Neural Plasticity: the Interactive Auditory System 231
The Auditory Brainstem: Hub of Auditory Information Processing 232
Selective Enhancement: Neural Signatures Of auditory Expertise 232
Musical Expertise 232
Bilingualism 233
Neural Underpinnings of Language Ability And impairment 234
Clinical Implications 235
Conclusions 235
Acknowledgments 236
References 236
Section 2: Methodology and Techniques 242
Chapter 13: Invasive Recordings in the Human Auditory Cortex 244
Introduction 244
Historic Overview 245
Research Subjects 246
Acute Experiments 247
Chronic Experiments 247
Data Analysis 251
Studies of Spectrotemporal Processing: Electrophysiologic Recording 253
Functional Connectivity Studies: Modeling and Electric Stimulation Tract Tracing 257
Functional Lesioning Studies: Electric Stimulation Mapping and Cortical Cooling 258
Caveats of the Method and Validity of Invasive Recordings 259
Conclusion 260
Acknowledgments 260
References 260
Chapter 14: Electromagnetic Recording of the Auditory System 264
Introduction 264
Electrophysiologic Recording 265
Magnetoencephalography 265
Auditory Research Using MEG 267
Transient Evoked Responses: N100m (M100), P2m, M350, N400m (M400) 267
``Transition´´ Responses: Pitch Onset Response, Change Response, Mismatch Response 268
Auditory steady-state Responses 270
Oscillations 270
Conclusion 271
References 272
Chapter 15: Hemodynamic Imaging of the Auditory Cortex 276
Introduction 276
Applications of Fmri to Investigate Central Auditory Function 276
Key Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 277
What Is MRI? 277
What Is fMRI? 278
Scanning Parameters 278
Practical Considerations in Optimizing the signal-to-noise Ratio of Auditory fMRI 280
Field Strength 280
Radiofrequency coils 281
Voxel size 281
Number of Acquisitions 281
Receiver Bandwidth 282
Practical Considerations in Optimizing the Quality Of Auditory fMRI Data 282
Reducing the Impact of Scanner Acoustic noise 282
Sparse Imaging 283
Noise Cancellation 283
Cardiac Gating for fMRI in Subcortical Auditory Structures 283
Experimental Designs 284
Categorical Designs 284
Factorial Designs 285
Parametric Designs 286
Adaptation Designs 286
Analysis 287
Spatial Preprocessing 288
Statistical Analyses 289
General Linear Model 289
Individual and Group-level Analyses 290
Statistical Inference 291
Plotting Statistical Results and Multiple Voxel Comparisons 291
Comparisons Between Brain Regions 291
Concluding Remarks 292
Acknowledgments 293
References 293
Chapter 16: Imaging white-matter Pathways of the Auditory System With diffusion Imaging Tractography 296
Introduction 296
Diffusion MRI Tractography 297
Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging 297
Diffusion Tensor Imaging 298
Non-tensorial Diffusion Models 299
Diffusion Imaging Tractography 299
Two Different Approaches: Deterministic And probabilistic Tractography 301
Tractography Reconstructions of the Auditory Pathways 301
Conclusions and Future Directions 304
Acknowledgments 305
References 305
Chapter 17: Electrophysiologic Auditory tests 308
Introduction 308
Electrocochleogram 308
Components of the Electrocochleogram 309
Cochlear Microphonic 309
Cochlear Summating Potential 310
Eighth-nerve Compound Action Potential 311
Clinical Applications of Electrocochleography 311
Measurement of Hearing 311
Me´nie` re’s Disease 312
Auditory Neuropathy 312
Intraoperative Monitoring 312
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials 313
BAEP Generators 313
BAEP Recording Techniques 315
Stimulation 315
Recording 317
Interpretation of BAEP Studies 317
Component Identification 317
Interpretation of Extraoperative Diagnostic Studies 318
Interpretation of Intraoperative BAEP Monitoring 319
Frequency-following Responses 320
Middle-latency Auditory Evoked Potentials 321
Components and Generators 321
Clinical Utility 323
Long-latency Auditory Evoked Potentials 323
The P1–N1–P2–N2 Complex 323
The Mismatch Negativity 324
The P3/P300 Component 325
Clinical and Research Applications 326
References 327
Chapter 18: Psychophysical and Behavioral Peripheral and Central Auditory tests 332
Introduction 332
Peripheral tests 332
Standard pure-tone Thresholds and Speech Recognition tests 332
Otoacoustic Emissions 333
The Acoustic Reflex 333
Central Auditory tests 334
Dichotic Listening 334
Dichotic Findings in Individuals With Normal Peripheral and Central Auditory Function 334
Methodologic Factors 334
Findings in Clinical Populations 335
Binaural Interaction Procedures 335
Masking Level Differences 336
Localization and Lateralization 336
Spatial Listening 337
Temporal Processing tests 338
Temporal Ordering or Sequencing 338
Temporal Resolution or Discrimination 339
Temporal Integration 340
Temporal Masking 340
Monaural low-redundancy tests 341
Classification of Monaural Low-redundancy Speech Tests 341
Low-pass Filtered Speech tests 342
Speech-in-competition (speech-in-noise) tests 342
Synthetic Sentence Identification test 343
Pediatric Speech Intelligibility test 343
Other speech-in-noise tests 343
Time-compressed Speech tests 344
Psychophysical Tests in Electrophysiologic Paradigms 345
Cost-effectiveness 345
Summary and Conclusions 345
References 347
Section 3: Disorders of the Auditory System 352
Chapter 19: Neurocognitive Development in Congenitally Deaf Children 354
Introduction 354
Prevalence and Epidemiology 354
Onset of Hearing loss 354
Progressive Hearing loss 355
Type of Hearing loss 356
Severity of Hearing loss 356
Hearing Loss and Additional Disabilities 356
Effects of Permanent Childhood Hearing Loss on the Child and Family 357
Auditory Plasticity 357
Sensitive Period for Language Learning 358
Impact on Child's Experience in the Family 359
Current Context for Children With Hearing loss 361
Neonatal Hearing Screening 361
Cochlear Implantation 361
Expectations 361
Summary 362
Factors Affecting Neurocognitive Development 362
Approaches to Neurodevelopmental Rehabilitation 363
Audition and Spoken Language 363
Children With Mild to Severe Degrees Of hearing loss 363
Children With Mild Bilateral and Unilateral Hearing loss 365
Children With Cochlear Implants 366
Reasons for Late Implantation 367
Literacy Development 368
Cognition and Learning 368
Cognitive Functioning in Children With cochlear Implants 369
Theory of Mind and Social Development 370
Summary 371
Acknowledgments 371
References 371
Chapter 20: Aging of the Auditory System 376
General Aspects Of aging 376
Definition and Terminology 377
Epidemiology 377
Histopathologic Changes and Schuknecht's Classification 379
Sensory Presbycusis 379
Neural Presbycusis 379
Strial Presbycusis 380
Atrophy of the Spiral Ligament 380
Indeterminant Presbycusis 381
Mixed Presbycusis 381
Cochlear Conductive Presbycusis 382
Aging of the Peripheral Auditory System 383
Oxidative Stress 383
Genetics 384
Mitochondria 384
Endocochlear Potential 385
Fibrocytes and Fibroblast Growth factor 386
Gender and Hormones 387
Aging of the Central Auditory System 388
Auditory Cortex 388
Theory of Cortical Disconnection 388
Calcium Homeostasis 388
Diagnosis and Clinical Manifestation 389
Rehabilitation 389
Consequences Of arhl 390
References 390
Chapter 21: Decreased Sound Tolerance: Hyperacusis, Misophonia, Diplacousis, and Polyacousis 394
Introduction 394
Definitions 394
Decreased Sound Tolerance (hyperacusis and Misophonia), Diplacousis, and Polyacousis as a Problem 396
Diagnosis 397
Prevalence and Epidemiology 399
Mechanisms 399
The Neurophysiological Model of Decreased Sound Tolerance 402
Treatments 402
Tinnitus Retraining Therapy (TRT) for Decreased Sound Tolerance 403
Conclusions 404
References 404
Chapter 22: Auditory Synesthesias 408
Introduction 408
Types of Synesthesia 408
Consistency 408
Automaticity 408
Dynamicity 409
Affectivity 409
Developmental Auditory Synesthesias 409
Auditory-visual Synesthesia 409
Auditory-olfactory and auditory-gustatory Synesthesia 412
Auditory Synesthesia With Auditory Concurrent (Table 22.4) 413
Bidirectional Auditory Synesthesia 413
Prevalence and Genetics of Developmental Synesthesias 413
Neurobiologic Investigation of Developmental Auditory Synesthesias 413
Structural Studies 413
Functional Studies 414
Neurophysiologic Studies 414
Neural Models of Developmental Synesthesias 416
Acquired Auditory Synesthesias 418
Acquired Auditory-visual Synesthesia 418
Lesional Acquired auditory-visual Synesthesia 418
Lesional Acquired auditory-visual Synesthesia With Pathological Affection of Anterior Optic Pathways (i.e., Visual Deaffer... 418
Neurophysiologic Investigations 419
Lesional auditory-visual Synesthesia Associated With Pathological Affection of the Central Nervous System With Intact Visua... 420
Non-lesional auditory-visual Synesthesia 420
Non-lesional auditory-visual Synesthesia Associated With Epilepsy 420
Non-lesional auditory-visual Synesthesia Associated With Migraines 420
Idiopathic non-lesional auditory-visual Synesthesia 420
Mechanisms of Acquired Auditory-visual Synesthesia 420
Acquired Auditory-tactile Synesthesia 422
Induced Synesthesias 422
Auditory Synesthesia Induced by Sensory Deprivation 422
Drug-induced Auditory Synesthesia (Use of Hallucinogens and Psychedelics) 422
Mechanism of Induced Auditory Synesthesias 423
Effect of Drugs on Developmental Synesthesia 423
Auditory Synesthesia: History and art 423
Conclusion 424
References 424
Chapter 23: Tinnitus 428
Introduction 428
Determining Tinnitus Etiology 428
Specific Quality 428
Specific and Always Lateralized 428
Sudden, Brief, Unilateral, Tapering Tinnitus (SBUTT) 428
Coarse Intermittent Sounds Coincident With Jaw Or head Movements 429
Fluttering 429
Specific and Always Non-lateralized 429
Exploding-head Syndrome 429
Specific and Sometimes, But Not Always, Unilateral 429
Autophony (echoing of the Voice), Or Blowing Tinnitus 429
Hallucinations (non-verbal, Stereotyped Repetitive) 430
Clicking 430
Non-lateralized 430
Lateralized 430
Unilateral Staccato Irregular Intermittent (typewriter Tinnitus). 430
Pulsatile (cardiac Synchronous) 431
Non-lateralized 431
Lateralized Or Non-lateralized: Somatosensory Pulsatile Tinnitus Syndrome 431
Lateralized 431
Eighth-nerve Vascular Compression. 432
Non-specific Quality 433
Always Non-lateralized 434
Chronic Progressive Symmetric Hearing Loss (presbycusis, Chronic Acoustic Trauma, Hereditary Hearing loss) 434
Autoimmune inner-ear Disease 434
Central Nervous System Disorder – Rostral To trapezoid body 434
Medication-related (including Withdrawal Syndromes) 434
Always Lateralized 435
Never With Vestibular Symptoms 435
Conductive Hearing loss 435
Otoacoustic Emissions 435
Eighth-nerve Compression (usually Vascular) 435
May Be With Vestibular Symptoms 435
Ménière's Syndrome 435
Perilymphatic Fistula 435
Superior Semicircular Canal Dehiscence (SSCD) 435
Herpes Zoster Oticus (Ramsay Hunt Syndrome) 436
Cerebellopontine Angle Tumors 436
Central Nervous System Disorder – Caudal to Trapezoid body 436
Sudden Idiopathic Hearing loss 436
May or May Not Be Lateralized 436
Acute Acoustic Trauma 436
Somatic (head Or Upper Cervical) 437
Head Trauma 438
Postinfectious 438
Idiopathic 438
Treatment of Tinnitus 438
Hyperacusis 439
The Neurology of Tinnitus 439
Hearing Loss and Somatic Tinnitus: the Unilateral Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus Hypothesis 439
Hearing Loss 439
The Somatosensory System 440
Why Does the Somatosensory System Communicate With the DCN? 442
Neck Proprioception 442
Jaw Proprioception 443
The Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus Hypothesis and Non-lateralized Tinnitus 443
Implications of the DCN Hypothesis 443
The Tinnitus Pathway Rostral To DCN 445
Tinnitus is a Threshold Phenomenon 445
Typewriter Tinnitus: cross-talk Between Auditory Nerve Fibers 446
Conclusions 446
References 447
Chapter 24: Auditory Hallucinations 452
Introduction 452
Definition, Conceptualization, and Classification 452
Definition 452
Conceptualization and Demarcation 453
Classification 453
Phenomenologic Characteristics 453
Perceived Location 453
Verbal Auditory Hallucinations 454
Non-verbal Auditory Hallucinations 455
Musical Hallucinations 455
Etiology 456
Occurrence in the Absence of Pathology 457
Pathophysiology 458
Evidence for a Functional Auditory Network 459
Evidence for a Structural Auditory Network 462
Pathophysiologic Processes 463
Pathophysiology of Musical Hallucinations 463
Treatment 464
Pharmacotherapy 464
Non-pharmacologic Treatment Methods 465
Metatheoretic Considerations 466
Insights From the Philosophy of Science 466
Insights From Network Science 468
Conclusion 469
References 471
Chapter 25: Palinacousis 476
Introduction 476
Defining Characteristics 476
Perseveration 476
Illusion 476
History 477
Anatomy 477
Auditory Memory 479
Clinical Characteristics of Palinacousis 479
Content 479
Quality 479
Latency 480
Lateralization Of sound 480
Lesion Location 480
Differential Diagnosis 480
Auditory Hallucinations of Psychotic Illness 480
Postictal Psychosis 482
Echolalia 482
Palilalia 483
Tinnitus 483
Pathophysiology of Palinacousis 483
Ictal 483
Postictal 484
Etiology 485
Associated Phenomena 485
Palinopsia 485
Music Hallucinations 485
Conclusions 485
References 485
Chapter 26: Musicogenic Epilepsy 488
Seizures and Reflex Epilepsies 488
Clinical Aspects of Musicogenic Seizures 489
Diagnostic Evaluation of Musicogenic Seizures 489
Illustrative case 490
Functional Imaging of Musicogenic Seizures 491
Relevance of Musicogenic Epilepsy to Epilepsy And music 493
Acknowledgments 495
References 495
Chapter 27: Deafness in Cochlear and Auditory Nerve Disorders 498
Introduction 498
Structures Affected By Sensorineural Hearing loss 498
Outer Hair cells 498
Inner Hair cells 498
Stria Vascularis 499
Auditory nerve 499
Etiology 500
Hereditary Causes 500
Noise 500
Ototoxic drugs 501
Hypoxia 501
Aging 501
Diagnosis 502
Threshold Measurement 502
Differentiating Damage to Structures In the cochlear and Auditory nerve 503
Otoacoustic Emissions 503
Diagnosing Auditory Nerve Dysfunction 503
The Effects of Sensorineural Hearing Loss on Auditory Coding 503
The Effects of Cochlear Damage On auditory coding 504
Rate Place Coding 504
Temporal Coding 504
The Effects of Auditory Nerve Damage On auditory Coding 505
Perceptual Consequences of Sensorineural Hearing loss 505
Perceptual Consequences of Cochlear Damage 505
Loudness Perception 505
Frequency and Pitch Perception 506
Poor Frequency Selectivity 507
Poor Temporal Coding 507
Spatial Hearing 507
Binaural Unmasking 508
Speech Perception 508
Treatment of Sensorineural Hearing loss 509
Hearing aids 509
Cochlear Implants 510
Summary 510
References 510
Chapter 28: Auditory Neuropathy 514
Introduction 514
Diagnosis 515
Electrophysiologic Procedures 515
Auditory Cortical Potentials 516
Neuroimaging 518
Audiology and Psychoacoustics 518
Audiologic Measures 518
Etiology 519
Pathologies of Auditory Neuropathy 519
Auditory nerve 519
Auditory Nerve Damage Accompanying Acoustic Trauma 520
Inner Hair Cell Ribbon Synapses 520
Clinical Expression of Auditory Neuropathy 520
Hearing Disorders Accompanying Auditory Neuropathy 521
Sound Detection Thresholds 521
Speech Perception 521
Auditory Processing in Auditory Neuropathy 522
Treatment of Auditory Neuropathy 523
Signal Clarity 523
Amplification (hearing aid) 523
Cochlear Electric Implants 524
New Directions 524
References 524
Chapter 29: Hearing Disorders in Brainstem Lesions 528
Introduction 528
Brainstem Auditory System 528
Prevalence of Hearing Disorders in Brainstem Diseases 529
Evaluation of brainstem-related Hearing Disorders 530
Psychoacoustic Testing 531
Patients With Brainstem Disorders Without Auditory Complaints 532
Patients With Brainstem Disorders and Hearing Loss 532
Neuroimaging 533
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials 534
Hearing Abnormalities in Isolated Lesions of Auditory Brainstem Centers 535
Disorders Limited to the Auditory nerve 535
Unilateral Lesions of the Cochlear Nuclei 535
Unilateral Lesions of the Superior Olivary Complex 535
Unilateral Lesions of the Lateral Lemniscus 535
Unilateral Lesions of the Trapezoid body 537
Unilateral Lesions to the Inferior Colliculus 537
Isolated Bilateral Lesion of the Inferior Colliculi 539
Isolated Bilateral Lesion of Pontomedullary Region 540
Auditory Hallucinations in Brainstem Disorders 540
Brainstem Clinical Disorders 544
Vestibular Schwannomas and Cerebellopontine Angle Tumors 544
Symptomatology 544
Audiometry and Other Diagnostic Testing 546
Physiopathology 547
Neuroimaging 547
Neurofibromatosis Type 2 (NF2) 548
Treatment Modalities 548
Brainstem Strokes Affecting the Auditory System 548
Occlusion of the Internal Auditory Artery 548
The Lateral Inferior Pontine Syndrome 549
The Lateral Superior Pontine Syndrome 550
Multiple Sclerosis Hearing Abnormalities 550
Management of Brainstem Hearing Disorders 550
References 550
Chapter 30: Central Auditory Processing Disorders in Children and Adults 556
Introduction 556
Current Definitions and Conceptualizations Of CAPD 556
Relationship of CAPD to Language, Learning, and Communication 559
Diagnosis Of CAPD 561
Behavioral Tests for CAPD Diagnosis 561
Dichotic Speech Tests 562
Temporal Processing Tests 562
Monaural Low-redundancy Speech Tests 562
Binaural Interaction Tests 562
Auditory Discrimination Tests 562
Selection of Behavioral Central Auditory tests 562
Interpretation of Behavioral Central Auditory tests 565
Electrophysiologic Tests for CAPD Diagnosis 566
Intervention For CAPD 567
Environmental Modifications 567
Central Resources Training 567
Direct Remediation 569
Case study 570
Conclusions 571
References 572
Chapter 31: Auditory Neglect and Related Disorders 576
Introduction 576
Clinical Presentation of Neglect 576
Extinction 577
Auditory Behavioral Deficits in Neglect and Similar Disorders 577
Auditory Extinction 577
Auditory Extinction in Dichotic Speech tests 578
Extinction and Temporal order 580
Target Detection tasks 580
Non-spatial Auditory Deficits in Neglect 581
Alloacusis 582
Sound Lateralization 582
Other Deficits of Spatial Hearing 583
Neural Basis of Neglect 584
Lesion sites 584
Models of Neglect 584
Functional Imaging 584
Conclusion 586
What is Auditory Neglect? 586
Which Workup Should Be used? 586
Can Auditory Neglect Be Treated? 587
Open Questions 587
Acknowledgments 588
References 588
Chapter 32: Auditory Agnosia 592
Introduction 592
Definitions 592
General Auditory Agnosia 595
Verbal Auditory Agnosia (word deafness) 595
Apperceptive Verbal Auditory Agnosia 597
Associative Verbal Auditory Agnosia 598
Phonagnosia 599
Agnosia for Environmental Sounds 599
Amusia 600
Auditory Affective Agnosia 600
Treatment for Auditory Agnosia 601
Conclusion 602
References 602
Chapter 33: Congenital Amusias 608
Introduction 608
A Deficit on the Pitch Dimension: Perception and Memory 610
Pitch Perception 610
Memory For pitch 611
Neural Correlates of Congenital Amusia: Anatomic and Functional data 612
Anatomic Correlates 612
Functional Investigations 614
Are the Processing Deficits in Congenital Amusia pitch-specific? 615
Testing Amusics Processing of the Time Dimension in Music, of Language, and Of space 615
Temporal Processing 615
Speech Processing 615
Space Processing 617
Disorders of Pitch Production and Music Production in Congenital Amusia: a Dissociation From Perception? 617
Implicit Pitch Processing in Congenital Amusia 619
Conclusion 620
References 621
Chapter 34: Acquired Amusia 626
Introduction 626
Scope of This Chapter 627
A Cognitive Framework for Understanding and Assessing Amusia 629
Disorders of Musical Scene Analysis 632
Disorders of Musical Property Encoding 632
Disorders of Pitch Perception 632
Disorders of Temporal Perception 635
Disorders of Timbre Perception 637
Disorders of Musical Object Perception: Apperceptive Agnosia 638
Disorders of Musical Object Recognition: Associative Agnosias 639
Disorders of Melody Recognition 639
Disorders of Musical Instrument Sound Recognition 641
Disorders of Musical Emotion Processing 641
Conclusions and Future Directions 644
Acknowledgments 645
References 645
Chapter 35: Hearing Disorders in Stroke 652
Introduction 652
Blood Supply of the Auditory System 652
Hearing Disorders in Stroke Sufferers 653
Hearing Loss After Stroke 653
Hearing Loss and Stroke in Population Studies 653
Sudden-onset Hearing Loss Due to Ischemic Stroke of the Vertebrobasilar Territory 654
Sudden Hearing Loss After Ischemic Stroke of the Upper Brainstem and Midbrain 655
Sudden Hearing Loss After Hemorrhagic Lesions Affecting the Vertebrobasilar Territory 655
``Central´´ or ``cortical´´ Deafness 656
Auditory-processing Deficits After Stroke 660
Other Auditory Phenomena: Tinnitus, Auditory Hallucinations, Hyperacusis, and Palinacousis 661
Conclusions 663
Auditory Symptoms and Deficits After Stroke: Comments on Current Practice 663
Assessment of Auditory Function After Stroke: what Should We Do And why? 664
References 664
Chapter 36: Hearing Disorders in Multiple Sclerosis 668
Introduction 668
Protocol for Detecting Lesions in the Brainstem Auditory Pathway 668
Psychophysical Hearing Assessment 669
Pure-tone Threshold 669
Speech Intelligibility 670
Binaural Hearing 671
Interaural Discrimination tests 671
Binaural masking-level Difference 674
Lateralization Experiments 674
Correlation Between BAEP and Binaural Performances 676
Theoretic Explanations 677
Correlation Between MS and Audiologic tests 677
Model for Lateralization tasks 678
Correlation Between BAEP and Binaural Discrimination tasks 679
Conclusion 682
References 682
Chapter 37: Hearing and Music in Dementia 686
Introduction 686
Overview of Dementia 686
Hearing Function in Neurodegenerative Diseases 687
Hearing Impairment 687
Peripheral Auditory System Function 688
Central Auditory System 688
Processing of Music in Neurodegenerative Diseases 690
Framework for Examining Music Perception in Neurodegenerative Diseases 690
Alzheimer Disease 692
Frontotemporal Dementia 695
Parkinson's Disease 696
Huntington's Disease 697
Recognition of Emotions In music 697
Processing of non-verbal Sounds in Neurodegenerative Diseases 698
Music as Therapy for Dementia 701
Summary 702
References 702
Chapter 38: Future Advances 708
Introduction 708
New and Developing Technologies 708
New Technologies Enable New large-scale Research Projects 708
Applications to Disease 709
References 711
Index 712