Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing - John Y. Mak, Saeid Mokhatab, William A. Poe

Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing (eBook)

Principles and Practices

John Y. Mak, Saeid Mokhatab, William A. Poe (Autoren)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2015 | 3. Auflage
628 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-801664-0 (ISBN)

Written by an internationally-recognized author team of natural gas industry experts, the third edition of Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing is a unique, well-documented, and comprehensive work on the major aspects of natural gas transmission and processing. Two new chapters have been added to the new edition: a chapter on nitrogen rejection to address today's high nitrogen gases and a chapter on gas processing plant operations to assist plant operators with optimizing their plant operations. In addition, overall updates to Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing provide a fresh look at new technologies and opportunities for solving current gas processing problems on plant design and operation and on greenhouse gases emissions. It also does an excellent job of highlighting the key considerations that must be taken into account for any natural gas project in development.

Covers all technical and operational aspects of natural gas transmission and processing in detail.
Provides pivotal updates on the latest technologies, applications and solutions.
Offers practical advice on design and operation based on engineering principles and operating experiences.

Saeid Mokhatab is one of the most recognizable names in the natural gas community through his contributions to advancing the technologies in the natural gas processing industry. He has worked in a variety of senior technical and managerial positions with major petroleum companies and has been actively involved in several large-scale gas-field development projects, concentrating on design, precommissioning and startup of processing plants. He has presented numerous invited lectures on gas processing technologies, and has authored or co-authored over 200 technical publications including two well-known Elsevier's handbooks, which are considered by many as major references to be taken into account for any gas processing/LNG project in development. He founded the world's first peer-reviewed journal devoted to the natural gas science and engineering (published by Elsevier, USA); has held editorial positions in many scientific journals/book publishing companies for the hydrocarbon processing industry; and served as a member of technical committees for a number of professional societies and famous gas-processing conferences worldwide. As a result of his outstanding work in the natural gas industry, he has received a number of international awards/medals including the Einstein Gold Medal of Honor and Kapitsa Gold Medal of Honor; and his biography has been listed in highly prestigious directories.

Written by an internationally-recognized author team of natural gas industry experts, the third edition of Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing is a unique, well-documented, and comprehensive work on the major aspects of natural gas transmission and processing. Two new chapters have been added to the new edition: a chapter on nitrogen rejection to address today's high nitrogen gases and a chapter on gas processing plant operations to assist plant operators with optimizing their plant operations. In addition, overall updates to Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing provide a fresh look at new technologies and opportunities for solving current gas processing problems on plant design and operation and on greenhouse gases emissions. It also does an excellent job of highlighting the key considerations that must be taken into account for any natural gas project in development. Covers all technical and operational aspects of natural gas transmission and processing in detail. Provides pivotal updates on the latest technologies, applications and solutions. Offers practical advice on design and operation based on engineering principles and operating experiences.

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
4
Copyright 5
Disclaimer 6
Dedication 8
Contents 12
About the Authors 24
Foreword 26
Preface to the Third Edition 28
Endorsements for the Third Edition 30
Chapter 1 - Natural Gas Fundamentals 32
1.1 Introduction 32
1.2 Natural gas history 32
1.3 Natural gas origin and sources 33
1.4 Natural gas composition and classification 34
1.5 Natural gas phase behavior 35
1.6 Natural gas properties 37
1.7 Natural gas reserves 47
1.8 Natural gas exploration and production 47
1.9 Natural gas transportation 55
1.10 Natural gas processing 64
1.11 Sales gas transmission 64
1.12 Underground gas storage 64
References 66
Chapter 2 - Raw Gas Transmission 68
2.1 Introduction 68
2.2 Multiphase flow terminology 68
2.3 Multiphase flow regimes 73
2.4 Determining multiphase flow design parameters 80
2.5 Predicting temperature profile of multiphase pipeline 91
2.6 Velocity criteria for sizing multiphase pipelines 95
2.7 Multiphase pipeline operations 96
2.8 Multiphase flow assurance 99
References 145
Chapter 3 - Basic Concepts of Natural Gas Processing 154
3.1 Introduction 154
3.2 Natural gas processing objectives 154
3.3 Gas processing plant configurations 155
3.4 Finding the best gas processing route 162
3.5 Support systems 163
3.6 Contractual agreements 164
References 166
Chapter 4 - Phase Separation 168
4.1 Introduction 168
4.2 Gravity separators 168
4.3 Multistage separation 176
4.4 Centrifugal separators 176
4.5 Twister supersonic separator 177
4.6 Slug catchers 179
4.7 High-efficiency liquid/gas coalescers 181
4.8 High-efficiency liquid–liquid coalescers 188
4.9 Practical design of separation systems 193
References 196
Chapter 5 - Condensate Production 200
5.1 Introduction 200
5.2 Condensate stabilization 201
5.3 Condensate hydrotreating 205
5.4 Effluent treatment 207
5.5 Condensate storage 209
Chapter 6 - Natural Gas Treating 212
6.1 Introduction 212
6.2 Gas treating specifications 212
6.3 Gas treating processes 213
6.4 Chemical absorption processes 214
6.5 Physical solvent processes 227
6.6 Mixed physical and chemical absorption processes 239
6.7 Solid bed absorption processes 241
6.8 Solid bed adsorption process 244
6.9 Membrane 245
6.10 Cryogenic fractionation 249
6.11 Microbiological treatment processes 249
6.12 Selecting the gas treating process 250
References 251
Chapter 7 - Natural Gas Dehydration 254
7.1 Introduction 254
7.2 Water content determination 255
7.3 Glycol dehydration 257
7.4 Solid-bed dehydration 268
7.5 Other gas dehydration processes 289
7.6 Gas dehydration process selection 290
7.7 Mercury removal 291
References 293
Chapter 8 - Natural Gas Liquids Recovery 296
8.1 Introduction 296
8.2 Refrigeration processes 297
8.3 Liquid recovery processes 302
8.4 Selection of NGL recovery process 320
8.5 NGL recovery technology development 321
8.6 NGL recovery unit design considerations 321
8.7 NGL recovery unit operating problems 321
8.8 NGL fractionation 322
8.9 Liquid product processing 324
References 329
Chapter 9 - Sulfur Recovery and Handling 332
9.1 Introduction 332
9.2 Sulfur properties 332
9.3 Sulfur recovery 333
9.4 Tail gas cleanup 345
9.5 Sulfur degassing 351
9.6 Sulfur storage and handling 353
9.7 SRU design considerations 355
9.8 SRU operation problems 358
9.9 Selecting the sulfur recovery process 362
9.10 Sulfur disposal by acid gas injection 363
References 364
Chapter 10 - Nitrogen Rejection 366
10.1 Introduction 366
10.2 Nitrogen rejection options 366
10.3 Nitrogen rejection unit integration 367
10.4 Cryogenic nitrogen rejection 369
10.5 Design considerations 376
10.6 Operating problems 377
Chapter 11 - Natural Gas Compression 380
11.1 Introduction 380
11.2 Reciprocating compressors 381
11.3 Centrifugal compressors 382
11.4 Comparison between compressors 384
11.5 Compressor selection 385
11.6 Thermodynamics of gas compression 386
11.7 Compression ratio 393
11.8 Compressor design 395
11.9 Compressor control 398
11.10 Compressor performance maps 406
11.11 Example for operating a compressor in a pipeline system 407
References 411
Chapter 12 - Sales Gas Transmission 414
12.1 Introduction 414
12.2 Gas flow fundamentals 414
12.3 Predicting gas temperature profile 421
12.4 Transient flow in gas transmission pipelines 423
12.5 Compressor stations 425
12.6 Reduction and metering stations 433
12.7 Design considerations of sales gas pipelines 434
12.8 Pipeline operations 440
References 441
Chapter 13 - Gas Processing Plant Automation 444
13.1 Introduction 444
13.2 Early methods of gas plant automation 444
13.3 Microprocessor-based automation 445
13.4 Control of equipment and process systems 448
13.5 Automation applications 455
13.6 Condensate stabilizer case study 464
References 467
Chapter 14 - Gas Processing Plant Operations 468
14.1 Introduction 468
14.2 Commissioning and start-up 468
14.3 Control room management 473
14.4 Maintenance 485
14.5 Troubleshooting 489
14.6 Turnarounds 495
References 495
Chapter 15 - Dynamic Simulation of Gas Processing Plants 498
15.1 Introduction 498
15.2 Areas of application of dynamic simulation 498
15.3 Modeling considerations 504
15.4 Control of equipment and process systems 508
15.5 Case study I: Analysis of a fuel gas system start-up 509
15.6 Case study II: Online dynamic model of a trunk line 512
References 516
Chapter 16 - Real-Time Optimization of Gas Processing Plants 518
16.1 Introduction 518
16.2 Real-time optimization 518
16.3 RTO project considerations 535
16.4 Example of RTO 536
References 547
Chapter 17 - Maximizing Profitability of Gas Plant Assets 548
17.1 Introduction 548
17.2 The performance strategy—integrated gas plant 549
17.3 Strategies for organizational behavior and information 550
17.4 Organizational behavior model 550
17.5 The successful information strategy 559
17.6 The impact of living with information technology 560
17.7 Vision of the modern plant operation 561
17.8 Operations strategy 562
17.9 Model-based asset management 563
17.10 Optimization 564
17.11 Industrial relevance 567
17.12 The technology integration challenge 568
17.13 Scientific approach 568
17.14 Other miscellaneous initiatives 570
17.15 Conclusion 570
References 572
Chapter 18 - Gas Plant Project Management 574
18.1 Introduction 574
18.2 Project management overview 574
18.3 Industry perspective 575
18.4 The project management process 576
18.5 Project controls 585
18.6 Quality assurance 595
18.7 Commissioning and start-up 596
18.8 Operate and evaluate 597
18.9 Project closeout 598
18.10 Conclusion 598
References 599
Appendix 1 - Conversion Factors 602
Appendix 2 - Standard Gas Conditions 604
Appendix 3 - Physical Properties of Fluids 606
Index 612

2.3. Multiphase flow regimes

Multiphase flow is characterized by the existence of interfaces between the phases and discontinuities of associated properties. The flow structures are rather classified in “flow regimes” or “flow patterns,” whose precise characteristics depend on a number of parameters. Flow regimes vary depending on operating conditions, fluid properties, flow rates, and the orientation and geometry of the pipe through which the fluids flow. The transition between different flow regimes may be a gradual process. Due to the highly nonlinear nature of the forces that rule the flow regime transitions, the prediction is near impossible. In the laboratory, the flow regime may be studied by direct visual observation using a length of transparent piping. However, the most utilized approach is to identify the actual flow regime from signal analysis of sensors whose fluctuations are related to the flow regime structure. This approach is generally based on average cross-sectional quantities, such as pressure drop or cross-sectional liquid holdup.

2.3.1. Two-phase flow regimes

The description of two-phase flow can be simplified by classifying types of “flow regimes” or “flow patterns.” The distribution of the fluid phases in space and time differs for the various flow regimes and is usually not under the control of the pipeline designer or operator.

Hubbard and Dukler (1966) suggested three basic flow patterns: separated, intermittent, and distributed flow. In separated flow patterns, both phases are continuous and some droplets or bubbles of one phase in the other may or may not exist. In the intermittent flow patterns, at least one phase is discontinuous. In dispersed flow patterns, the liquid phase is continuous, while the gas phase is discontinuous.

Due to multitude of flow patterns and the various interpretations accorded to them by different investigators, the general state of knowledge on flow patterns is unsatisfactory and no uniform procedure exists at present for describing and classifying them. In this section, the basic flow patterns in gas-liquid flow in horizontal, vertical, and inclined pipes are introduced.

2.3.1.1. Horizontal flow regimes

Two-phase, gas-liquid flow regimes for horizontal flow are shown in Figure 2-2. These horizontal flow regimes are defined as follows.

Dispersed bubble flow

At high liquid flow rates and for a wide range of gas flow rates small gas bubbles are dispersed throughout a continuous liquid phase. Due to the effect of buoyancy these bubbles tend to accumulate in the upper part of the pipe.

Plug (elongated bubble) flow

At relatively low gas flow rates, as the liquid flow rate is reduced, the smaller bubbles of dispersed bubble flow coalesce to form larger bullet-shaped bubbles that move along the top of the pipe.

Figure 2-2 Horizontal two-phase, gas-liquid flow regimes.

Stratified (smooth and wavy) flow

At low liquid and gas flow rates gravitational effects cause total separation of the two phases. This results in the liquid flowing along the bottom of the pipe and the gas flowing along the top, where the gas-liquid surface is smooth. As the gas velocity is increased in stratified smooth flow the interfacial shear forces increase, rippling the liquid surface and producing a wavy interface.

Slug flow

As the gas and liquid flow rates are increased further, the stratified liquid level grows and becomes progressively more wavy until eventually the whole cross-section of the pipe is blocked by a wave. The resultant “piston” of liquid is then accelerated by the gas flow; surging along the pipe, and scooping up the liquid film in front as it progresses. This “piston” is followed by a region containing an elongated gas bubble moving over a thin liquid film. Hence an intermittent regime develops in which elongated gas bubbles and liquid slugs alternately surge along the pipe. The major difference between elongated bubble flow and slug flow is that in elongated bubble flow there are no entrained gas bubbles in the liquid slugs.

Annular flow

When gas flow rates increase, annular (also referred to as annular mist) flow occurs. During annular flow, the liquid phase flows largely as an annular film on the wall with gas flowing as a central core. Some of the liquid is entrained as droplets in this gas core. The annular liquid film is thicker at the bottom than at the top of the pipe because of the effect of gravity and, except at very low liquid rates, the liquid film is covered with large waves.

2.3.1.2. Vertical flow regimes

Flow regimes frequently encountered in upward vertical two-phase flow are shown in Figure 2-3. These flow regimes tend to be somewhat more simpler than those in horizontal flow. This results from the symmetry in the flow induced by the gravitational force acting parallel to it. A brief description of the manner in which the fluids are distributed in the pipe for upward vertical two-phase flow is as follows. It is worth noting that vertical flows are not so common in raw gas systems (i.e., wells normally have some deviation and many risers are also inclined to some extent).

Figure 2-3 Upward vertical two-phase flow regimes.

Bubble flow

At very low liquid and gas velocities, the liquid phase is continuous and the gas phase travels as dispersed bubbles. This flow regime is called bubble flow. As the liquid flow rate increases, the bubbles may increase in size via coalescence.

Based on the presence or absence of slippage between the two phases, bubble flow is further classified into bubbly and dispersed bubble flows. In bubbly flow, relatively fewer and larger bubbles move faster than the liquid phase because of slippage. In dispersed bubble flow, numerous tiny bubbles are transported by the liquid phase, causing no relative motion between the two phases.

Slug flow

As the gas velocity increases, the gas bubbles start coalescing, eventually forming large enough bubbles (Taylor bubbles) which occupy almost the entire cross-sectional area. This flow regime is called slug flow. Taylor bubbles move uniformly upward and are separated by slugs of continuous liquid that bridge the pipe and contain small gas bubbles. Typically, the liquid in the film around the Taylor bubbles may move downward at low velocities although the net flow of liquid can be upward. The gas bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid.

Churn (transition) flow

If a change from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase occurs, the continuity of the liquid in the slug between successive Taylor bubbles is repeatedly destroyed by a high local gas concentration in the slug. This oscillatory flow of the liquid is typical of churn (froth) flow. It may not occur in small diameter pipes. The gas bubbles may join and liquid may be entrained in the bubbles. In this flow regime, the falling film of the liquid surrounding the gas plugs cannot be observed.

Annular flow

As the gas velocity increases even further, the transition occurs and the gas phase becomes a continuous phase in the pipe core. The liquid phase moves upward partly as a thin film (adhering to the pipe wall) and partly in the form of dispersed droplets in the gas core. This flow regime is called an annular flow or an annular-mist flow.

Although downward vertical two-phase flow is less common than upward flow, it does occur in steam injection wells and downcomer pipes from offshore production platforms. Hence a general vertical two-phase flow pattern is required that can be applied to all flow situations. Reliable models for downward multiphase flow are currently unavailable and the design codes are deficient in this area.

2.3.1.3. Inclined flow regimes

The effect of pipeline inclination on the gas-liquid two-phase flow regimes is of a major interest in hilly terrain pipelines that consist almost entirely of uphill and downhill inclined sections. Pipe inclination angles have a very strong influence on flow pattern transitions. Generally, the flow regime in a near horizontal pipe remains segregated for downward inclinations and changes to intermittent flow regime for upward inclinations. An intermittent flow regime remains intermittent when tilted upward and tends to segregated flow pattern when inclined downward. The inclination should not significantly affect the distributed flow regime (Scott et al., 1987).

2.3.1.4. Flow pattern maps

In order to obtain optimal design parameters and operating conditions, it is necessary to clearly understand multiphase flow regimes and the boundaries between them, where the hydrodynamics of the flow as well as the flow mechanisms change significantly from one flow regime to another. If an undesirable flow regime is not anticipated in the design, the resulting flow pattern can cause system pressure fluctuation and system vibration, and even mechanical failures of piping components.

Most early attempts to predict the occurrence of the various flow patterns in pipes were based on conducting experimental tests in small diameter pipes at low pressures with air and water. The results of experimental studies were presented as a flow pattern map. The respective pattern was represented as areas on a plot, the coordinates of which were the dimensional variables (i.e., superficial phase...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	14.2.2015
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie
Themenwelt	Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
ISBN-10	0-12-801664-7 / 0128016647
ISBN-13	978-0-12-801664-0 / 9780128016640

Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt?

PDF (Adobe DRM)
Größe: 33,0 MB

Kopierschutz: Adobe-DRM
Adobe-DRM ist ein Kopierschutz, der das eBook vor Mißbrauch schützen soll. Dabei wird das eBook bereits beim Download auf Ihre persönliche Adobe-ID autorisiert. Lesen können Sie das eBook dann nur auf den Geräten, welche ebenfalls auf Ihre Adobe-ID registriert sind.
Details zum Adobe-DRM

Dateiformat: PDF (Portable Document Format)
Mit einem festen Seitenlayout eignet sich die PDF besonders für Fachbücher mit Spalten, Tabellen und Abbildungen. Eine PDF kann auf fast allen Geräten angezeigt werden, ist aber für kleine Displays (Smartphone, eReader) nur eingeschränkt geeignet.

Systemvoraussetzungen:
PC/Mac: Mit einem PC oder Mac können Sie dieses eBook lesen. Sie benötigen eine Adobe-ID und die Software Adobe Digital Editions (kostenlos). Von der Benutzung der OverDrive Media Console raten wir Ihnen ab. Erfahrungsgemäß treten hier gehäuft Probleme mit dem Adobe DRM auf.
eReader: Dieses eBook kann mit (fast) allen eBook-Readern gelesen werden. Mit dem amazon-Kindle ist es aber nicht kompatibel.
Smartphone/Tablet: Egal ob Apple oder Android, dieses eBook können Sie lesen. Sie benötigen eine Adobe-ID sowie eine kostenlose App.
Geräteliste und zusätzliche Hinweise

Buying eBooks from abroad
For tax law reasons we can sell eBooks just within Germany and Switzerland. Regrettably we cannot fulfill eBook-orders from other countries.

EPUB (Adobe DRM)
Größe: 22,9 MB

Dateiformat: EPUB (Electronic Publication)
EPUB ist ein offener Standard für eBooks und eignet sich besonders zur Darstellung von Belletristik und Sachbüchern. Der Fließtext wird dynamisch an die Display- und Schriftgröße angepasst. Auch für mobile Lesegeräte ist EPUB daher gut geeignet.

Buying eBooks from abroad
For tax law reasons we can sell eBooks just within Germany and Switzerland. Regrettably we cannot fulfill eBook-orders from other countries.

Print-Ausgabe

Buch | Hardcover

137,15 €