Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers - Ali Turan, D. Winterbone

Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers (eBook)

Ali Turan, D. Winterbone (Autoren)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2015 | 2. Auflage
578 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-099983-8 (ISBN)

Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition introduces the basic concepts of thermodynamics and applies them to a wide range of technologies. Authors Desmond Winterbone and Ali Turan also include a detailed study of combustion to show how the chemical energy in a fuel is converted into thermal energy and emissions; analyze fuel cells to give an understanding of the direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical power; and provide a study of property relationships to enable more sophisticated analyses to be made of irreversible thermodynamics, allowing for new ways of efficiently covering energy to power (e.g. solar energy, fuel cells). Worked examples are included in most of the chapters, followed by exercises with solutions. By developing thermodynamics from an explicitly equilibrium perspective and showing how all systems attempt to reach equilibrium (and the effects of these systems when they cannot), Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition provides unparalleled insight into converting any form of energy into power. The theories and applications of this text are invaluable to students and professional engineers of all disciplines.

Includes new chapter that introduces basic terms and concepts for a firm foundation of study
Features clear explanations of complex topics and avoids complicated mathematical analysis
Updated chapters with recent advances in combustion, fuel cells, and more
Solutions manual will be provided for end-of-chapter problems

Desmond Winterbone was the Chair in thermodynamics in UMIST (became University of Manchester in 2004) for 22 years, until his retirement in 2002. He graduated in Mechanical Engineering while undertaking a Student Apprenticeship, where he developed his interest in reciprocating engines. He embarked on PhD studies on diesel engine performance in University of Bath, graduating in 1970. He then joined the staff at UMIST where the general theme of his work was the simulation of prime movers with three main aims: thermodynamic analysis - to obtain a better understanding of engine performance; synthesis - to enable new engine systems to be designed; control - to improve the performance of such systems by feedback mechanisms. He has published five books on thermodynamics and engine simulation.
Professor Winterbone served as Vice-Principal, and Pro-Vice Chancellor of UMIST. He retired in 2002, but undertook a number of consultancies and teaching activities: he also obtained a BA in Humanities. Professor Winterbone was an active member of the IMechE Combustion Engine Group and Chairman from May 1991 to 1995. From 1989-96 he was Chairman of the Universities Internal Combustion Engine Group - a discussion forum for research workers and industrialists. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1989. He was awarded a Mombusho Visiting Professorship at the University of Tokyo in 1989, and spent three months in University of Canterbury, New Zealand on an Erskine Fellowship in 1994. He has been active in promoting links throughout the world, including particularly Japan and China. In addition he has a number of contacts in Europe and was awarded an Honorary DSc from the University of Gent (Belgium) in 1991.

Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition introduces the basic concepts of thermodynamics and applies them to a wide range of technologies. Authors Desmond Winterbone and Ali Turan also include a detailed study of combustion to show how the chemical energy in a fuel is converted into thermal energy and emissions; analyze fuel cells to give an understanding of the direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical power; and provide a study of property relationships to enable more sophisticated analyses to be made of irreversible thermodynamics, allowing for new ways of efficiently covering energy to power (e.g. solar energy, fuel cells). Worked examples are included in most of the chapters, followed by exercises with solutions. By developing thermodynamics from an explicitly equilibrium perspective and showing how all systems attempt to reach equilibrium (and the effects of these systems when they cannot), Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition provides unparalleled insight into converting any form of energy into power. The theories and applications of this text are invaluable to students and professional engineers of all disciplines. Includes new chapter that introduces basic terms and concepts for a firm foundation of study Features clear explanations of complex topics and avoids complicated mathematical analysis Updated chapters with recent advances in combustion, fuel cells, and more Solutions manual will be provided for end-of-chapter problems

Front Cover 1
Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Preface – First Edition 12
Preface – Second Edition 16
Structure of the Book 20
Notation 22
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND REVISION 28
1.1 THERMODYNAMICS 28
1.2 DEFINITIONS 29
1.3 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM AND THE ZEROTH LAW 30
1.4 TEMPERATURE SCALES 31
1.5 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS AND SURROUNDINGS 31
1.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 39
1.7 PROBLEMS 39
CHAPTER 2 - THE SECOND LAW AND EQUILIBRIUM 40
2.1 THERMAL EFFICIENCY 40
2.2 HEAT ENGINE 40
2.3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 40
2.4 THE CONCEPT OF THE HEAT ENGINE: DERIVED BY ANALOGY WITH A HYDRAULIC DEVICE (TABLE 2.1) 41
2.5 THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE 42
2.6 ENTROPY 42
2.7 REPRESENTATION OF HEAT ENGINES 44
2.8 REVERSIBILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY (FIRST COROLLARY OF SECOND LAW) 45
2.9 EQUILIBRIUM 46
2.10 HELMHOLTZ ENERGY (HELMHOLTZ FUNCTION) 49
2.11 GIBBS ENERGY 51
2.12 GIBBS ENERGY AND PHASES 53
2.13 EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF EQUILIBRIUM MET IN THERMODYNAMICS 54
2.14 CONCLUDING REMARKS 56
2.15 PROBLEMS 56
CHAPTER 3 - ENGINE CYCLES AND THEIR EFFICIENCIES 62
3.1 HEAT ENGINES 62
3.2 AIR-STANDARD CYCLES 70
3.3 GENERAL COMMENTS ON EFFICIENCIES 79
3.4 REVERSED HEAT ENGINES 79
3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 83
3.6 PROBLEMS 83
CHAPTER 4 - AVAILABILITY AND EXERGY 88
4.1 DISPLACEMENT WORK 88
4.2 AVAILABILITY 89
4.3 EXAMPLES 91
4.4 AVAILABLE AND NON-AVAILABLE ENERGY 96
4.5 IRREVERSIBILITY 97
4.6 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF AVAILABLE ENERGY AND IRREVERSIBILITY 101
4.7 AVAILABILITY BALANCE FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM 102
4.8 AVAILABILITY BALANCE FOR AN OPEN SYSTEM 111
4.9 EXERGY 112
4.10 THE VARIATION OF FLOW EXERGY FOR A PERFECT GAS 119
4.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS 120
4.12 PROBLEMS 120
CHAPTER 5 - RATIONAL EFFICIENCY OF POWER PLANT 126
5.1 THE INFLUENCE OF FUEL PROPERTIES ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY 126
5.2 RATIONAL EFFICIENCY 127
5.3 RANKINE CYCLE 131
5.4 EXAMPLES 133
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 143
5.6 PROBLEMS 143
CHAPTER 6 - FINITE TIME (OR ENDOREVERSIBLE) THERMODYNAMICS 146
6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 146
6.2 EFFICIENCY AT MAXIMUM POWER 149
6.3 EFFICIENCY OF COMBINED CYCLE INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE HEAT ENGINES WHEN PRODUCING MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT 154
6.4 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS 159
6.5 MORE COMPLEX EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF FTT 160
6.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 164
6.7 PROBLEMS 164
CHAPTER 7 - GENERAL THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS: FOR SINGLE COMPONENT SYSTEMS OR SYSTEMS OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION 168
7.1 THE MAXWELL RELATIONSHIPS 168
7.2 USES OF THE THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS 172
7.3 TDS RELATIONSHIPS 175
7.4 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES 179
7.5 THE CLAUSIUS–CLAPEYRON EQUATION 183
7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 186
7.7 PROBLEMS 186
CHAPTER 8 - EQUATIONS OF STATE 190
8.1 IDEAL GAS LAW 190
8.2 VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE 192
PROBLEM 194
8.3 LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES 194
8.4 ISOTHERMS OR ISOBARS IN THE TWO-PHASE REGION 198
8.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 200
8.6 PROBLEMS 201
CHAPTER 9 - THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF IDEAL GASES AND IDEAL GAS MIXTURES OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION 204
9.1 MOLECULAR WEIGHTS 204
9.2 STATE EQUATION FOR IDEAL GASES 205
9.3 TABLES OF U(T) AND H(T) AGAINST T 210
9.4 MIXTURES OF IDEAL GASES 222
9.5 ENTROPY OF MIXTURES 226
9.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 228
9.7 PROBLEMS 229
CHAPTER 10 - THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION 234
10.1 SIMPLE CHEMISTRY 235
10.2 COMBUSTION OF SIMPLE HYDROCARBON FUELS 238
10.3 HEATS OF FORMATION AND HEATS OF REACTION 240
10.4 APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION TO THE COMBUSTION PROCESS – A MACROSCOPIC APPROACH 241
10.5 COMBUSTION PROCESSES 246
10.6 EXAMPLES 249
10.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259
10.8 PROBLEMS 260
CHAPTER 11 - CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION 262
11.1 BOND ENERGIES AND HEAT OF FORMATION 262
11.2 ENERGY OF FORMATION 264
11.3 ENTHALPY OF REACTION 272
11.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS 272
CHAPTER 12 - CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND DISSOCIATION 274
12.1 GIBBS ENERGY 274
12.2 CHEMICAL POTENTIAL, µ 276
12.3 STOICHIOMETRY 277
12.4 DISSOCIATION 278
12.5 CALCULATION OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND THE LAW OF MASS ACTION 282
12.6 VARIATION OF GIBBS ENERGY WITH COMPOSITION 285
12.7 EXAMPLES OF SIGNIFICANCE OF KP 287
12.8 THE VAN'T HOFF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND HEAT OF REACTION 294
12.9 THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ON DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION 297
12.10 DISSOCIATION CALCULATIONS FOR THE EVALUATION OF NITRIC OXIDE 299
12.11 DISSOCIATION PROBLEMS WITH TWO, OR MORE, DEGREES OF DISSOCIATION 301
12.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS 316
12.13 PROBLEMS 317
CHAPTER 13 - EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON COMBUSTION PARAMETERS 322
13.1 CALCULATION OF COMBUSTION BOTH WITH AND WITHOUT DISSOCIATION 323
13.2 THE BASIC REACTIONS 323
13.3 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON PEAK PRESSURE 324
13.4 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON PEAK TEMPERATURE 325
13.5 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS 325
13.6 THE EFFECT OF FUEL ON COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS 329
13.7 THE FORMATION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN 329
13.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS 332
CHAPTER 14 - CHEMICAL KINETICS 334
14.1 INTRODUCTION 334
14.2 REACTION RATES 335
14.3 RATE CONSTANT FOR REACTION, K 338
14.4 CHEMICAL KINETICS OF NO 339
14.5 OTHER KINETICS-CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS 344
14.6 THE EFFECT OF POLLUTANTS FORMED THROUGH CHEMICAL KINETICS 345
14.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 348
14.8 PROBLEMS 348
CHAPTER 15 - COMBUSTION AND FLAMES 350
15.1 INTRODUCTION 350
15.2 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION 351
15.3 EXPLOSION LIMITS 353
15.4 FLAMES 355
15.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 370
15.6 PROBLEMS 371
CHAPTER 16 - RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 372
16.1 INTRODUCTION 372
16.2 FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF BASIC ENGINE CYCLES 373
16.3 SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 379
16.4 DIESEL (COMPRESSION IGNITION) ENGINES 381
16.5 FRICTION IN RECIPROCATING ENGINES 386
16.6 SIMULATION OF COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 391
16.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 402
16.8 PROBLEMS 403
CHAPTER 17 - GAS TURBINES 408
17.1 THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE 409
17.2 SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE ANALYSIS 411
17.3 AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINES 428
17.4 COMBUSTION IN GAS TURBINES 442
17.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 447
17.6 PROBLEMS 447
CHAPTER 18 - LIQUEFACTION OF GASES 450
18.1 LIQUEFACTION BY COOLING – METHOD (I) 450
18.2 LIQUEFACTION BY EXPANSION – METHOD (II) 455
18.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS 470
18.4 PROBLEMS 470
CHAPTER 19 - PINCH TECHNOLOGY 474
19.1 HEAT TRANSFER NETWORK WITHOUT A PINCH PROBLEM 474
19.2 STEP 1: TEMPERATURE INTERVALS 477
19.3 STEP 2: INTERVAL HEAT BALANCES 479
19.4 HEAT TRANSFER NETWORK WITH A PINCH POINT 484
19.5 STEP 3: HEAT CASCADING 485
19.6 PROBLEMS 489
CHAPTER 20 - IRREVERSIBLE THERMODYNAMICS 494
20.1 DEFINITION OF IRREVERSIBLE OR STEADY-STATE THERMODYNAMICS 494
20.2 ENTROPY FLOW AND ENTROPY PRODUCTION 495
20.3 THERMODYNAMIC FORCES AND THERMODYNAMIC VELOCITIES 496
20.4 ONSAGER'S RECIPROCAL RELATION 497
20.5 THE CALCULATION OF ENTROPY PRODUCTION OR ENTROPY FLOW 499
20.6 THERMOELECTRICITY – THE APPLICATION OF IRREVERSIBLE THERMODYNAMICS TO A THERMOCOUPLE 500
20.7 DIFFUSION AND HEAT TRANSFER 511
20.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS 521
20.9 PROBLEMS 521
CHAPTER 21 - FUEL CELLS 524
21.1 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS 525
21.2 THEORY OF FUEL CELLS 530
21.3 EFFICIENCY OF A FUEL CELL 542
21.4 THERMODYNAMICS OF CELLS WORKING IN STEADY STATE 543
21.5 LOSSES IN FUEL CELLS 545
21.6 SOURCES OF HYDROGEN FOR FUEL CELLS 550
21.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 552
21.8 PROBLEMS 552

Preface – First Edition

When reviewing, or contemplating writing, a text-book on engineering thermodynamics, it is necessary to ask what does this book offer that is not already available? The author has taught thermodynamics to mechanical engineering students, at both undergraduate and postgraduate level, for 25 years, and has found that the existing texts cover very adequately the basic theories of the subject. However, by the final years of a course, and at postgraduate level, the material which is presented is very much influenced by the lecturer, and here it is less easy to find one book which covers all the syllabus in the required manner. This book attempts to answer this need, for the author at least.

The engineer is essentially concerned with manufacturing devices to enable tasks to be performed cost-effectively and efficiently. Engineering has produced a new generation of automatic ‘slaves’ which enable those in the developed countries to maintain their lifestyle by the consumption of fuels rather than by manual labour. The developing countries still rely to a large extent on ‘manpower’, but the pace of development is such that the whole world wishes to have the machines and quality of life which we, in the developed countries, take for granted: this is a major challenge to the engineer, and particularly the thermodynamicist. The reason why the thermodynamicist plays a key role in this scenario is because the methods of converting any form of energy into power are the domain of thermodynamics: all of these processes obey the four laws of thermodynamics, and their efficiency is controlled by the second law. The emphasis of the early years of an undergraduate course is on the first law of thermodynamics, which is simply the conservation of energy; the first law does not give any information on the quality of the energy. It is the hope of the author that this text will introduce the concept of the quality of energy and help future engineers use our resources more efficiently. Ironically, some of the largest demands for energy may come from cooling (e.g. refrigeration and air-conditioning) as the developing countries in the tropical regions become wealthier – this might require a more basic way of considering energy utilisation than that emphasised in current thermodynamic texts. This book attempts to introduce basic concepts which should apply over the whole range of new technologies covered by engineering thermodynamics. It considers new approaches to cycles, which enable their irreversibility to be taken into account; a detailed study of combustion to show how the chemical energy in a fuel is converted into thermal energy and emissions; an analysis of fuel cells to give an understanding of the direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical power; a detailed study of property relationships to enable more sophisticated analyses to be made of both high and low temperature plant; and irreversible thermodynamics, whose principles might hold a key to new ways of efficiently converting energy to power (e.g. solar energy, fuel cells).

The great advances in the understanding and teaching of thermodynamics came rapidly towards the end of the nineteenth century, and it was not until the 1940s that these were embodied in thermodynamics textbooks for mechanical engineers. Some of the approaches used in teaching thermodynamics still contain the assumptions embodied in the theories of heat engines without explicitly recognising the limitations they impose. It was the desire to remove some of these shortcomings, together with an increasing interest in what limits the efficiency of thermodynamic devices, that led the author down the path which has culminated in this text.

I am still a strong believer in the pedagogical necessity of introducing thermodynamics through the traditional route of the zeroth, first, second and third laws, rather than attempting to use the Single-Axiom Theorem of Hatsopoulos and Keenan, or The Law of Stable Equilibrium of Haywood. While both of these approaches enable thermodynamics to be developed in a logical manner, and limit the reliance on cyclic processes, their understanding benefits from years of experience – the one thing students are lacking. I have structured this book on the conventional method of developing the subject. The other dilemma in developing an advanced level text is whether to introduce a significant amount of statistical thermodynamics; since this subject is related to the particulate nature of matter, and most engineers deal with systems far from regions where molecular motion dominates the processes, the majority of the book is based on equilibrium thermodynamics; which concentrates on the macroscopic nature of systems. A few examples of statistical thermodynamics are introduced to demonstrate certain forms of behaviour, but a full understanding of the subject is not a requirement of the text.

The book contains XX chapters and while this might seem an excessive number, these are of a size where they can be readily incorporated into a degree course with a modular structure. Many such courses will be based on 2 h lecturing per week, and this means that most of the chapters can be presented in a single week. Worked examples are included in most of the chapters to illustrate the concepts being propounded, and the chapters are followed by exercises. Some of these have been developed from texts which are now not available (e.g. Benson, Haywood) and others are based on examination questions. Solutions are provided for all the questions. The properties of gases have been derived from polynomial coefficients published by Benson: All the parameters quoted have been evaluated by the author using these coefficients, and equations published in the text: this means that all the values are self-consistent, which is not the case in all texts. Some of the combustion questions have been solved using computer programs developed at UMIST, and these are all based on these gas property polynomials. If the reader uses other data, e.g. JANAF tables, the solutions obtained might differ slightly from those quoted.

Engineering thermodynamics is basically equilibrium thermodynamics although for the first two years of the conventional undergraduate course these words are used but not often defined. Much of the thermodynamics done in the early years of a course also relies heavily on reversibility, without explicit consideration of the effects of irreversibility. Yet, if the performance of thermodynamic devices is to be improved, it is the irreversibility which must be tackled. This book introduces the effects of irreversibility through considerations of availability (exergy), and the concept of the endoreversible engine. The thermal efficiency is related to that of an ideal cycle by the rational efficiency – to demonstrate how closely the performance of an engine approaches that of a reversible one. It is also shown that the Carnot efficiency is a very artificial yardstick against which to compare real engines: the internal and external reversibilities imposed by the cycle mean that it produces zero power at the maximum achievable efficiency. The approach by Curzon and Ahlborn to define the efficiency of an endoreversible engine producing maximum power output is introduced: this shows the effect of external irreversibility. This analysis also introduces the concept of entropy generation in a manner readily understandable by the engineer; this concept is the cornerstone of the theories of irreversible thermodynamics which are at the end of the text.

Whilst the laws of thermodynamics can be developed in isolation from consideration of the property relationships of the system under consideration, it is these relationships which enable the equations to be closed. Most undergraduate texts are based on the evaluation of the fluid properties from the simple perfect gas law, or from tables and charts. While this approach enables typical engineering problems to be solved, it does not give much insight into some of the phenomena which can happen under certain circumstances. For example, is the specific heat at constant volume a function of temperature alone for gases in certain regions of the state diagram? Also, why is the assumption of constant stagnation, or even static, temperature valid for flow of a perfect gas through a throttle, but never for steam? An understanding of these effects can be obtained by examination of the more complex equations of state. This immediately enables methods of gas liquefaction to be introduced.

An important area of engineering thermodynamics is the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. These have formed the driving force for the improvement of living standards which has been seen over the last century, but they are presumably finite, and are producing levels of pollution that are a constant challenge to engineers. At present, there is the threat of global warming due to the build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: this requires more efficient engines to be produced, or for the carbon/hydrogen ratio in fuels to be reduced. Both of these are major challenges, and while California can legislate for the zero emissions vehicle (ZEV) this might not be a worldwide solution. It is said that the ZEV is an electric car running in Los Angeles on power produced in Arizona! – obviously a case of exporting pollution rather than reducing it. The real challenge is not what is happening in the West, although the energy consumption of the United States is prodigious, but how can the aspirations of the East be met. The combustion technologies developed today...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	7.2.2015
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie
Themenwelt	Technik ► Maschinenbau
ISBN-10	0-08-099983-2 / 0080999832
ISBN-13	978-0-08-099983-8 / 9780080999838

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