Remote Sensing and Modeling (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 12
Contributors 16
Part I: Remote Sensing, Mapping and Survey of Coastal Biophysical Environments 22
Chapter 1: Remote Sensing of Coastal Ecosystems and Environments 23
1.1 Introduction 23
1.2 Wetland Mapping 24
1.3 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Wetlands 27
1.4 Wetland Applications of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 28
1.5 Wetland Change Detection 29
1.6 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) 31
1.7 Beach Profiling and Shoreline Change Detection 34
1.8 Bathymetry 37
1.9 Summary and Conclusions 41
References 42
Chapter 2: Advanced Techniques for Mapping Biophysical Environments on Carbonate Banks Using Laser Airborne Depth Sounding (LA... 51
2.1 Introduction 52
2.1.1 Remote Sensing of Seafloor Features 52
2.1.1.1 Three-Dimensional Hachure Maps 52
2.1.1.2 Coastal Aerial Photography 54
2.1.1.3 Airborne Laser Imagery (LIDAR and LADS) 55
2.1.1.4 Satellite Imagery (IKONOS) 56
2.2 Incorporating Classification Schemes with Advanced Remote Sensing Images 56
2.2.1 Development of a Geomorphological Typology Based on LADS Imagery 56
2.2.2 Geomorphological Symbolization 60
2.2.2.1 Color Tints and Shades 61
2.2.2.2 Symbols, Signs, and Ciphers 62
2.2.2.3 Legend Patterns 62
2.2.3 Interpretation and Classification of IKONOS Imagery 62
2.3 Remote Sensing of Carbonate Banks in Southern Florida 67
2.4 Examples of Seafloor Mapping on Carbonate Banks 68
2.4.1 LADS Survey of Carbonate Shelf 68
2.4.2 IKONOS Survey of the Marquesas 69
2.5 Discussion 75
2.5.1 Pros and Cons Associated with High Density Airborne Laser Bathymetry (ALB) Data 76
2.5.2 Pros and Cons Associated with Satellite Multispectral Data 76
2.6 Conclusions 78
References 79
Chapter 3: Terrestrial Laser Scanner Surveying in Coastal Settings 84
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 The TLS Instrument 85
3.3 Field Surveys and Scanner Setup 86
3.4 Data Merging and Modeling 90
3.5 Applications of TLS in Coastal Settings 92
3.6 Conclusions 93
References 94
Chapter 4: Advances in Applied Remote Sensing to Coastal Environments Using Free Satellite Imagery 96
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Remote Sensors: An Overview 97
4.2.1 The Landsat Program 98
4.3 The Landsat Operational History 103
4.4 The New Landsat 8 105
4.5 Application Examples 105
4.5.1 Shoreline Detection and Extraction 105
4.5.1.1 Methodology 107
4.5.1.2 Results 108
4.5.2 Long-Term Evolution of an Ephemeral Ebb Delta Island 109
4.5.2.1 Methodology 110
4.5.2.2 Results 110
4.5.3 Seasonal Evolution of a Transient Beach 112
4.5.3.1 Methodology 112
4.5.3.2 Results 113
4.5.4 Bathymetric Data Retrieval 115
4.5.4.1 Methodology 116
4.5.4.2 Results 116
4.6 Conclusion 119
References 119
Chapter 5: Remote Sensing and Modeling of Coral Reef Resilience 122
5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 Coral Reef Ecosystem Resilience and Indicators of Resilience 124
5.3 What Remote Sensing Can Map on Coral Reefs 125
5.3.1 Mapping the Seafloor 127
5.3.2 Mapping the Water Column 130
5.3.3 Mapping and Modeling the Seascape Context 131
5.3.4 Mapping Threats and Stressors 132
5.4 Direct Monitoring 132
5.5 Spatial Distribution Modeling 133
5.6 Case Studies 134
5.6.1 High-Resolution Mapping of Selected Resilience Indicators in Fiji 134
5.6.2 High-Resolution Mapping of a Coral Reef Resilience Index in Saudi Arabia 136
5.6.3 Mapping Exposure of Coral Reefs to Climate-Driven Environmental Stress 138
5.7 Spatially Explicit Resilience Modeling 141
5.8 Management Applications 143
5.9 Conclusion 145
References 145
Chapter 6: An Assessment of Physiographic Habitats, Geomorphology and Evolution of Chilika Lagoon (Odisha, India) Using Geospa... 154
6.1 Introduction 155
6.2 Methods of Study 156
6.3 Geomorphology of Chilika Lagoon 157
6.4 Historical Environment of Chilika Lagoon System 170
6.5 Wetland Types (Chilika Lagoon System) 170
6.6 Chilika Lagoon Fringe Wetland Types at the Physiographic Settings 172
6.7 Storm Generated Geomorphic Changes 174
6.8 Conclusions 174
References 179
Chapter 7: Foreshore Applications of X-band Radar 180
7.1 Introduction 181
7.1.1 Requirements of Nearshore Monitoring System 181
7.1.2 Merits and Demerits Between Different Sensors 182
7.1.3 Basics of Radar Remote Sensing 184
7.1.4 Swash Motion Studies 185
7.1.5 Objectives of the Chapter 186
7.2 Setup of the Study 187
7.2.1 Research Pier HORS 187
7.2.2 Radar System and Echo Image 188
7.2.3 Meteorological and Sea State Conditions 189
7.2.4 Spectral Characteristics of Incident Wave Fields 191
7.3 Implication of Averaged Images 193
7.3.1 Inter-tidal Bathymetry 193
7.3.2 Foreshore Slope 196
7.4 Swash Front Analyses 197
7.4.1 Digitization of Swash Motion 197
7.4.2 Validation of Swash Front 198
7.4.3 Shoreline Position 199
7.5 Longshore Structure of Wave Run-up 201
7.5.1 Run-up Height 201
7.5.2 Infra-gravity Run-Up Distribution 202
7.5.3 Spectra of Water Front Elevation 203
7.5.4 Dependence of Run-Up Height on Slope 205
7.5.5 Propagation of Low Frequency Motion 206
7.6 Concluding Remarks 208
References 209
Part II: Advances in the Study and Interpretation of Coastal Oceans, Estuaries, Sea-Level Variation, and Water Quality 211
Chapter 8: Digital Ocean Technological Advances 212
8.1 Digital Earth and Digital Ocean 213
8.2 Technological Advances for Digital Ocean 214
8.2.1 Introduction to Digital Ocean Data Sources 214
8.2.2 The Three-Dimensional Ocean Data Integration Platform 216
8.2.3 The Dynamic Tide Data Visualization 219
8.2.4 Remote Sensing Information Products Integration and Sharing 219
8.2.5 Computational Ocean Model Data Integration and Service 220
8.2.6 Spatio-temporal Model of Marine Disasters 222
8.3 Digital Ocean System Initial Architecture 223
8.3.1 Data Acquire Layer 223
8.3.2 Standard Data Layer 225
8.3.3 Data Service Interface Layer 225
8.3.4 Function Layer 225
8.3.5 Application Layer 226
8.4 A Case Study of Digital Ocean 226
8.4.1 A Digital Ocean Prototype System 226
8.4.2 DE in Support of an Online Oceanic Educational Public Service and Popularization System 227
8.4.3 The Evaluation of Initial DO Application 227
8.5 Future Work with Digital Ocean 228
8.5.1 Aiding Integrative Oceanic Scientific Research 228
8.5.2 Constructing Regional DO Systems 228
8.5.3 Studying Multiple Spatio-temporal Scales of Ocean Factors 229
8.5.4 Studying the Relationship Between Ocean Elements at Different Times 229
8.5.5 Studying the Spatial Relationship Between Different Ocean Elements or Components 229
8.5.6 Studying the Architecture of the DO 229
8.5.7 Studying the Coastal River Basin Non-point Pollution Landscape Source and Assemblage Pattern Remote Sensing Parsing 230
References 230
Chapter 9: A New Statistical-Empirical Hybrid Based Model to Estimate Seasonal Sea-Level Variation in the Gulf of Paria from R... 232
9.1 Introduction 233
9.1.1 Global Freshwater Influence 234
9.1.2 Study Area 235
9.1.3 Numerical Modelling 237
9.2 Data and Method 238
9.2.1 Data 238
9.2.2 Mesh Generation and Boundary Conditions 240
9.2.3 Data Treatment Method 241
9.2.4 Model Execution Procedures 242
9.2.5 Calibration and Validation 243
9.2.6 Development of the Statistical Model 244
9.3 Results and Analysis 244
9.3.1 Validation of Modelled Water Levels 244
9.3.2 Statistical Water Level Estimates 246
9.4 Discussion 248
9.4.1 Freshwater Effects 248
9.4.2 Sources of Error 249
9.4.3 Significance of Results 250
9.5 Conclusion 251
References 251
Chapter 10: Advances in Modeling of Water Quality in Estuaries 254
10.1 Introduction 254
10.1.1 MOHID Water Modeling System 256
10.1.1.1 Model Equations 257
10.1.1.2 Water Processes 257
10.1.1.3 Horizontal Geometry 259
10.1.1.4 Vertical Coordinates 260
10.1.1.5 Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches 260
10.2 Advanced Applications with MOHID 261
10.2.1 Downscaling: From the Large Scale to the Local Scale 261
10.2.1.1 Automatic Running Tool 263
10.2.2 The Tagus Operational Model 263
10.2.2.1 Model Validation 268
10.2.3 Bathing Water Quality 270
10.2.3.1 Fecal Decay Model 272
10.2.3.2 Bathing Water Quality Assessment 272
10.2.4 Residence Time of Water 275
10.2.4.1 Residence Time of Water in the Mondego Estuary 276
10.2.5 Nutrient Exchanges Between Estuaries and the Ocean 278
10.2.6 Seaweed Modeling 282
10.2.7 The Role of Complex Biogeochemical Algorithms in Estuarine Modeling 286
10.2.7.1 Nutrient Availability 286
10.2.7.2 Light Conditions 288
10.2.7.3 Relevant Ecological Groups 288
10.3 Conclusions 290
References 291
Chapter 11: Advances in Video Monitoring of the Beach and Nearshore: The Long-Term Perspective 294
11.1 Introduction 295
11.2 Pluriannual Video Monitoring Programs 296
11.3 Case Study 297
11.3.1 Study Site 298
11.3.2 Methods 299
11.3.2.1 Video Monitoring 299
11.3.2.2 Beach Volume 300
Model Validation 302
11.3.2.3 Wave Forcing 303
11.3.3 Results 303
11.3.3.1 Wave Forcing 303
11.3.3.2 Beach Morphodynamics 304
11.4 Conclusions 309
References 310
Chapter 12: Application of Advanced Remote Sensing Techniques to Improve Modeling Estuary Water Quality 312
12.1 Background and Introduction 313
12.2 Case Study Site: Lake Pontchartrain 315
12.3 Description of Numerical Model Used (CCHE2D) 317
12.4 Satellite Data Used 318
12.5 Modeling Sediment Transport 319
12.6 Modeling Salinity Distribution 322
12.7 Prediction of Algal Bloom 324
12.8 Discussion, Conclusions and Future Research 327
References 328
Part III: Advances in Coastal Modeling Using Field Data, Remote Sensing, GIS, and Numerical Simulations 331
Chapter 13: Developments in Salt Marsh Topography Analysis Using Airborne Infrared Photography 332
13.1 Introduction 333
13.2 Study Area 334
13.3 Method 335
13.3.1 Waterline Method/Construction of the DEM 335
13.3.1.1 Aerial Survey 335
13.3.1.2 Image Processing 336
13.3.1.3 DEM Construction 337
13.3.2 Accuracy Assessment 337
13.4 Results 338
13.5 Discussion 341
13.5.1 Duplin´s Intertidal Marsh Topography and Flooding Patterns 341
13.5.2 Duplin´s DEM Vertical Accuracy 341
13.5.3 Applications of the Methodology 341
13.5.4 Strengths, Limitations, and Further Potential of the Methodology 342
13.6 Conclusions 344
References 344
Chapter 14: Examining Material Transport in Dynamic Coastal Environments: An Integrated Approach Using Field Data, Remote Sens... 347
14.1 Introduction 348
14.2 Study Site: The Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System, North Carolina USA 350
14.3 An Integrated Approach to Examining the APES 352
14.4 Field Sampling and Measurements 352
14.5 Laboratory Measurements and Analysis 353
14.6 Example Field Results 356
14.7 Remote Sensing 360
14.8 Example Remote Sensing Results 362
14.9 Modeling 368
14.10 Discussion 371
References 374
Chapter 15: Simulation Management Systems Developed by the Northern Gulf Coastal Hazards Collaboratory (NG-CHC): An Overview o... 379
15.1 Introduction 381
15.2 Simulation Management Systems 384
15.3 Geoinformatics 391
15.4 Collaborative Environment 393
15.4.1 Cybertools of NG-CHC 393
15.4.2 NG-CHC Portal 396
15.5 Collaboratory Experiments 398
15.5.1 River Management and Ecosystem Restoration 398
15.5.2 Mobile Bay Experiment: Processes from Catchment to the Coast 400
15.5.3 Forecasting Hurricane Storm Surge 402
15.6 Education and Outreach 403
References 406
Chapter 16: Advancement of Technology for Detecting Shoreline Changes in East Coast of India and Comparison with Prototype Beh... 409
16.1 Introduction 409
16.2 Development of Port at Ennore 411
16.3 Site Conditions 411
16.4 Transformation of Waves 412
16.5 Simulation of Littoral Drift and Shoreline Changes 413
16.5.1 Littoral Drift Distribution 414
16.5.2 Shoreline Changes 414
16.6 Shoreline Changes by Image Processing 415
16.7 Comparison of Shoreline Changes Obtained by Mathematical Model and Image Processing 416
16.8 Conclusion 417
References 417
Chapter 17: Advances in Remote Sensing of Coastal Wetlands: LiDAR, SAR, and Object-Oriented Case Studies from North Carolina 418
17.1 Introduction 419
17.1.1 Coastal Wetland Biomass and Topography 419
17.1.2 SAR and LiDAR Data 420
17.1.3 Fine Spatial Resolution and Object-Based Image Analysis 421
17.1.4 Rapid Coastal Response 423
17.2 Coastal Ecosystem Classification and Change 424
17.2.1 Wetland Hydrogeomorphic Classification 424
17.2.2 Salt Marsh Zonation and Classification 425
17.2.3 Invasive Phragmites 426
17.3 Case Studies 426
17.3.1 Case Study: Multi-sensor and Multi-date SAR for Emergent Marsh Mapping in Cedar Island NWR 426
17.3.2 Case Study: OBIA for Transitional Marshes and Phragmites in Spencer Creek, Alligator River NWR 428
17.3.3 Barrier Island Vegetation Mapping with OBIA Techniques, Rachel Carson Coastal Reserve 432
17.3.4 Case Study Synthesis 435
17.4 Conclusions 437
References 437
Part IV: Advances in the Management of Coastal Resources Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS 442
Chapter 18: Numerical Modelling and Satellite Remote Sensing as Tools for Research and Management of Marine Fishery Resources 443
18.1 Introduction 443
18.2 Numerical Models and Their Potential Application to Marine Fish and Invertebrate Larval Transport 444
18.2.1 Fish Larval Transport Modelling as an Example of Bio-physical Processes 445
18.2.2 Modelling Larval Transport and Settling Areas in Case of Bio-fouling Organisms from Ballast Waters 446
18.3 Geo-physical Datasets from SRS in the Context of Marine Fisheries Research and Management 449
18.3.1 SRS Chlorophyll Data Providing Cues on Fish Stock Variability 449
18.3.2 Reef Health Advisories Using SRS Derived SST 452
18.3.3 SRS Data for Cyclone Tracks Creating Productive Fishing Grounds 453
18.3.4 Demarcation of Ecological Provinces in Support of an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management 453
18.4 Coupling Modelled and SRS Data for Effective Fishery Management 454
18.4.1 Trophic Modelling Using SRS Data as an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management 454
18.4.2 Generating Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) and Their Dissemination Along with Ocean State Forecasts (OSF) 455
18.4.3 Detection of Meso-scale Features Such as Eddies and Fronts That May Indicate Productive Fishing Grounds 455
18.4.4 Forecasting Cyclones and Ocean State to Reduce Impacts on Coastal Fisher Folk and Resources 457
18.4.5 Estimation of Potential Fishery Resources of an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for Fishing Fleet Management 459
18.5 Overview 459
References 460
Chapter 19: Identifying Suitable Sites of Shrimp Culture in Southwest Bangladesh Using GIS and Remote Sensing Data 465
19.1 Introduction 466
19.2 Materials and Methods 469
19.3 Results and Discussion 470
19.3.1 Distribution of Water Bodies 470
19.3.2 Fisheries Production 470
19.3.3 Status of Water Quality 472
19.3.4 Types of Soil 477
19.3.5 Chemical Properties of Soil 477
19.3.6 Distribution of Drainage Condition, Hazard Frequency, Soil Nutrients, Soil Reactions, Soil Salinity, and Soil Depth 483
19.3.7 Causes of Water Logging 485
19.3.8 Suitable Site Selection for Shrimp Culture 485
19.3.8.1 Decision Making 485
19.3.8.2 Decision Rules and Knowledge Base 486
19.3.8.3 Suitability Categories 486
19.4 Conclusion 489
References 490
Chapter 20: A Multi-criteria Approach for Erosion Risk Assessment Using a New Concept of Spatial Unit Analysis, Wave Model and... 493
20.1 Introduction 493
20.2 The Meaning of Risk 494
20.3 Multi-criteria Approaches for Erosion Risk Assessment 495
20.4 Methodology 496
20.4.1 Spatial Units of Analysis 496
20.4.2 Risk Assessment 498
20.4.2.1 Susceptibility Indicators and Index 498
20.4.2.2 Exposure Indicators and Index 500
20.4.2.3 Erosion Risk Index 501
20.5 Vila Nova de Gaia Case Study 502
20.5.1 Field Data 503
20.5.2 Results and Discussion 503
20.6 Conclusions 504
References 506
Index 507