Characterization in Silicon Processing (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Characterization in Silicon Processing 4
Copyright page 5
Table of Contents 6
Preface to Series 10
Preface 11
Contributors 13
CHAPTER 1. APPLICATION OF MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES TO SILICON EPITAXIAL GROWTH 16
1.1 Introduction 16
1.2 Silicon Epitaxial Growth 17
1.3 Film and Process Characterization 19
1.4 Selective Growth 29
1.5 Si1 – xGex Epitaxial Growth 33
1.6 Si 1 – xGex Material Characterization 35
1.7 Summary 41
Acknowledgments 41
References 41
CHAPTER 2. POLYSILICON CONDUCTORS 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Deposition 48
2.3 Doping 60
2.4 Patterning 62
2.5 Subsequent Processing 64
References 67
CHAPTER 3. SILICIDES 68
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Formation of Suicides 72
3.3 The Silicide–Silicon Interface 91
3.4 Oxidation of Silicides 97
3.5 Dopant Redistribution During Silicide Formation 99
3.6 Stress in Silicides 102
3.7 Stability of Silicides 105
3.8 Summary 107
References 107
CHAPTER 4. ALUMINUM- AND COPPER-BASED CONDUCTORS 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.2 Film Deposition 113
4.3 Film Growth 119
4.4 Encapsulation 128
4.5 Reliability Concerns 129
References 135
CHAPTER 5. TUNGSTEN-BASED CONDUCTORS 136
5.1 Applications for ULSI Processing 136
5.2 Deposition Principles 137
5.3 Blanket Tungsten Deposition 138
5.4 Selective Tungsten Deposition 142
References 152
CHAPTER 6. BARRIER FILMS 153
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 Characteristics of Barrier Films 154
6.3 Types of Barrier Films 155
6.4 Processing Barrier Films 155
6.5 Examples of Barrier Films 158
6.6 Summary 178
Acknowledgments 179
References 179
APPENDIX: TECHNIQUE SUMMARIES 182
1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 184
2 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM) 185
3 Capacitance–Voltage (C–V) Measurements 192
4 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) 194
5 Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (Dynamic SIMS) 196
6 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC) Microscopy 197
7 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) 203
8 Focused Ion Beams (FIBs) 204
9 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 208
10 Hall Effect Resistivity Measurements 209
11 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) 211
12 Light Microscopy 212
13 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED) 213
14 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 214
15 Optical Scatterometry 215
16 Photoluminescence (PL) 216
17 Raman Spectroscopy 217
18 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED) 218
19 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 219
20 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 220
21 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) 221
22 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Scanning Force Microscopy (STM and SFM) 222
23 Sheet Resistance and the Four Point Probe 223
24 Spreading Resistance Analysis (SRA) 232
25 Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (Static SIMS) 240
26 Surface Roughness: Measurement, Formation by Sputtering, Impact on Depth Profiling 241
27 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis (TXRF) 242
28 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 243
29 Variable-Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (VASE) 244
30 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 245
31 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) 246
32 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 247
Index 248