Progress in Refrigeration Science and Technology (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Progress in Refrigeration Science and Technology 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 10
Foreword 6
Preface 8
Volume I 9
Introduction 12
OPENING OF CONGRESS 12
OTHER ACTIVITIES OF THE CONGRESS 25
THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF REFRIGERATION 25
CLOSING CEREMONY 26
Officers of the Xlth International Congress of Refrigeration Personnalités du XIe Congrès International du Froid 32
International Institute of Refrigeration — Officers Institut International du Froid Personnalités 33
Sponsor Organizations Organisations Donatrices 36
Organizations Providing Gifts Organisations ayant présenté des cadeaux 36
Part I: Plenary Meetings 38
Session 
40 
Chapter 1. Technological Applications of Very Low Temperatures 40
ROCKET FUELS 40
CRYOPUMPING: SPACE SIMULATION 41
CRYOGENIC PUMPING : WIND TUNNELS 41
BUBBLE CHAMBERS 41
HEAT AND VIBRATION 42
INFRA-RED DETECTORS 42
COMMUNICATIONS 43
STUDY OF METALS 43
QUANTUM EFFECTS 43
THE LOWEST TEMPERATURES 44
REFERENCES 44
Chapter 2. Applications of Superconductivity 46
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 49
REFERENCES 49
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers P–3 + P–11) 49
Session 
52 
Chapter 3. Concepts of Thermoelectric Refrigeration 52
PROGRESS IN REFRIGERATION 53
THE THERMOCOUPLE 53
THEORY OF A THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATOR 56
APPLICATION 58
Chapter 4. The Practical Use of Thermoelectric Refrigeration 60
EFFICIENCY CONSIDERATIONS 62
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 62
AIR COOLED THERMOELECTRIC DEVICES 63
CONTROLS 63
HEAT DISSIPATION 63
HEAT TRANSFER CHAIN, TEMPERATURE DROPS 63
CERAMIC PACKAGE UNITS 64
APPLICATIONS 64
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 71
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers P–8 + P–7) 71
Session 3: Energy for Refrigeration in Coming Years 76
Chapter 5. 
76 
SOLID FUELS 76
LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS 77
SOLAR ENERGY 78
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION 78
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 80
THERMOELECTRIC PROCESSES 81
FUEL CELLS 82
REFERENCES 84
DISCUSSION 84
Session 4: 
86 
Chapter 6. 
86 
INTRODUCTION 86
RAW MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS 87
PROCESSING 87
PACKAGING 89
TIME AND TEMPERATURE 90
FUTURE TRENDS 92
Chapter 7. Factors Affecting the Keeping Quality of Frozen Foods 94
INTRODUCTION 94
THE TIME — TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP 94
METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF LOSS IN QUALITY 96
DETERMINATION OF "FIRST DETECTABLE DIFFERENCE" 96
RELATING "FIRST DETECTABLE DIFFERENCE" TO CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE 97
DIFFERENCES IN STORAGE LIFE AS RELATED TO PRODUCTS, PROCESSING, AND PACKAGING 100
CONCLUSION 101
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers P-2 + P-9) 101
Session 5: Freeze-Drying 104
Chapter 8. Basic Principles of Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying) 104
INTRODUCTION 104
I — THE RANGE OF THE MAIN APPLICATIONS OF FREEZE-DRYING 105
II — THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE FREEZE-DRYING PROCESS 106
REFERENCES 113
Chapter 9. Freeze-Drying in Biology 116
FREEZE-DRYING IN BIOLOGY 116
THE FREEZE-DRYING OF BIOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS 117
FREEZE-DRYING OF TISSUES 118
FREEZE-DRYING OF LIVING ORGANISMS 119
REFERENCES 120
Chapter 10.Freeze Drying of Foodstuffs 122
INTRODUCTION 122
RAW MATERIALS 122
PROCESSING PARAMETERS 123
FINISHED PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS 125
PACKAGING AND STORAGE CONDITIONS 125
REHYDRATION 126
THE FUTURE 126
BIBLIOGRAPHY 126
Chapter 11. Engineering Problems and Economical Aspects of Freeze-Drying 128
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers P-6, P-55 P-4, P-1) 135
PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF THE FREEZE-DRIED MATERIAL 137
THERMODYNAMIC PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE FREEZE-DRYING PROCESS 138
Part II: Commission 1 Scientific problems of low temperature physics and thermodynamics. Cryogenic engineering 140
Session 6: 
142 
Chapter 12. 
142 
PROPERTIES OF PARAHYDROGEN 142
REFERENCES 146
Chapter 13. The NBS* Cryogenic Data Center** 147
DISCUSSION 150
Chapter 14. Liquefaction of Hydrogen and Helium for Nuclear Applications 152
(1) INTRODUCTION 152
(2) BUBBLE CHAMBER 152
(3) REFRIGERATION PLANT FOR COLD NEUTRON SOURCE 155
(4) FURTHER OUTLOOK 156
DISCUSSION 156
Chapter 15. A Simple Cooling System with a Cryogenic Pump 158
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 159
Chapter 16. Helium Refrigerator for the Production of Cold at Temperatures down to 2.5° K 160
INTRODUCTION 160
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCEDURE 161
A) REFRIGERATOR OPERATION 162
B) LIQUEFIER OPERATION 163
DESIGN PRINCIPLES 163
DISCUSSION 166
Chapter 17. A Miniature Helium Turbo-Expander for Cryogenic Refrigeration Systems 168
INDRODUCTION 168
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 169
MECHANICAL DETAILS 169
TESTS 170
CONCLUDING REMARKS 171
REFERENCES 172
DISCUSSION 172
Chapter 18. Utilization of a Combined Expansion Cycle in Liquid Air Separating Installations 174
REFERENCES 177
Chapter 19. Purification Method for Obtaining Very Pure Hydrogen at High Pressure 178
INTRODUCTION 178
1. PURIFICATION OF NORMAL HYDROGEN 178
2. DETERMINATION OF THE DEGREE OF PURITY 180
3. SOME RESULTS OF PURIFICATION OBTAINED WITH THIS METHOD AND APPARATUS 181
REFERENCES 181
Session 7: 
182 
Chapter 20. 
182 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 187
REFERENCES 187
Chapter 21. Les problèmes techniques soulevés par les irradiations neutroniques au dessous de 30° K 188
1 - IRRADIATIONS A 28° K 188
2 - IRRADIATIONS A 5°K 191
REFERENCES 193
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers I–18 and I–10) 193
Chapter 22. 
196 
1. THE DEWAR 196
2. THE LOW TEMPERATURE PART OF THE DOUBLE RESONANCE APPARATUS 197
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 199
REFERENCES 199
Chapter 23. 
200 
1 - EXECUTION DES MESURES D'ENERGIE EMMAGASINEE DEPUIS 80° K 201
2 - RESULTATS EXPERIMENTAUX 202
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 204
Chapter 24. Paramagnetic Resonance in y-Irradiated Donetz Coal 206
1. INTRODUCTION 206
2. DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT 206
3. PRELIMINARY RESULTS 207
4. PROSPECTS 207
REFERENCES 208
Chapter 25. Lasting Changes in Properties of Metallic Materials Caused by Low Temperatures 210
SUMMARY 213
Chapter 26. Physical Aspects of Bubble Formation in Hydrogen and Thermodynamical Properties of Liquid n-Hydrogen 214
3. CONCLUSION 216
4. THERMODYNAMIC QUANTITIES OF LIQUID N HYDROGEN 216
REFERENCES 217
Session 8: 
218 
Chapter 27. 
218 
1. THE STRUCTURE OF THE LOGARITHMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE 218
2. LIMITATIONS IN THE USE OF THE LOGARITHMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE 220
REFERENCES 222
DISCUSSION 222
Chapter 28. The Correlation of Experimental Pressure-Density-Temperature and Specific Heat Data for Parahydrogen 224
INTRODUCTION 224
REPRESENTATION OF THE P-ñ-T DATA 224
CALCULATION OF THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS 225
COMPARISON AND TESTS 226
REFERENCES 228
Chapter 29. The Velocity of Ultrasonic Pulses in Hydrogen Between 60 and 90°K as a Function of Pressure 230
SYNOPSIS 230
INTRODUCTION 230
RESULTS 230
REFERENCES 234
Chapter 30. Experimental Determination of HE for the System N2-H2 in the Gaseous State 236
REFERENCES 239
DISCUSSION 239
Chapter 31. Freezing Pressures of 8 He-4 He-Mixtures 240
THE RESULTS 240
PHASE-DIAGRAM 240
NEW DEVELOPMENTS 242
REFERENCES 242
DISCUSSION 243
Chapter 32. Flux Trapping and Flux Pumping with Solenoidal Superconductors 244
1. INTRODUCTION 244
2. APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES 244
3. FLUX JUMPS AND FLUX CREEP 245
4. PROPERTIES OF SOME Nb-Sn PREPARATIONS 246
5. PERSISTENT MAGNETS 248
REFERENCES 249
DISCUSSION 249
Chapter 33. A Flux Pump for Generation of High Currents in a Superconducting Foil Magnet 252
REFERENCES 254
Chapter 34. Equipment for Producing Pulsed Magnetic Fields of High Intensity and Magneto-Resistance Measurements on Germanium 256
1. THE APPARATUS 256
2. THE COILS 256
3. MEASUREMENTS OF THE MAGNETORESISTANCE OF N-TYPE GERMANIUM 259
4. SECOND EQUIPMENT 260
CONCLUSION 262
Chapter 35. 
264 
1. INTRODUCTION 264
2. SURFACE TREATMENTS AND RESULTS 264
3. DISCUSSION 267
REFERENCES 267
Chapter 36. 
268 
1. INTRODUCTION 268
2. THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SUPER-CURRENTS 268
REFERENCE 269
Chapter 37. Studies on Some Sulphide Phosphors in the Temperature Range from 4.2° to 77.4° K 270
1) THE APPARATUS AND THE MEASURING DEVICES 270
2) MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS 271
3) DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS 274
4. THE NATURE OF THE TRAPS 275
Part III: Commission 2 Transfer of heat. Thermal properties of materials. Instrumentation. Insulating materials 276
Session 9: 
278 
Chapter 38. Heat Transfer by Natural Convection in Porous Insulants 278
INTRODUCTION 278
THE NATURE OF THE ENHANCED HEAT TRANSMISSION PROCESS 278
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS FOR CONVECTION STUDIES 278
THEORETICAL CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION 279
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 281
REFERENCES 281
DISCUSSION 281
Chapter 39. Investigation of the Influence of Free Thermal Convection on Heat Transfer through Granular Material 284
INTRODUCTION 285
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND TEST PROGRAMME 285
TEST RESULTS 286
DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY 289
CONCLUSIONS 290
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 290
REFERENCES 290
DISCUSSION 290
Chapter 40. On the Thermal Conductivity of Powder Insulations 292
1. INTRODUCTION 292
2. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY APPARATUS 292
3. SAMPLE PREPARATION 293
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 294
5. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL CORRELATION OF DATA 296
6. CONCLUSIONS 298
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 299
REFERENCES 299
DISCUSSION 299
Chapter 41. 
302 
REFERENCES 304
DISCUSSION 305
Chapter 42. Urethane Rigid Foams: Factors Affecting their Behaviour as Thermal Insulants 308
INTRODUCTION 308
MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER 308
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT 309
THE INFLUENCE OF CELL SIZE ON K-VALUE 309
COMBINED EFFECT OF GAS CONTENT AND 7C-VALUE 311
AGEING 312
SOME PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 315
REFERENCES 316
DISCUSSION 316
Chapter 43. 
320 
I. INTRODUCTION 320
II. MATERIAL SELECTION 320
III. TEST APPARATUS 321
IV. TEST PROCEDURE 323
V. DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS 323
REFERENCES 328
DISCUSSION 328
Chapter 44. Analysis of Economic Factors Affecting the Selection of Piping Insulation Thickness 330
APPENDIX 333
REFERENCES 335
Session 10: 
338 
Chapter 45. 
338 
REFERENCES 341
DISCUSSION 341
Chapter 46. Thermodynamic Properties of an Azeotropic Mixture of Freon-124 and Freon-C 318 344
Chapter 47. 
348 
INTRODUCTION 348
APPARATUS 349
PRECISION OF MEASUREMENTS 350
PURITY OF GASES 351
RESULTS 352
REFERENCES 354
DISCUSSION 354
Chapter 48. On the Thermodynamics of the Cold-Air Cycle with Throttling 356
THE EXERGETIC EFFICIENCY 358
THE EXERGY LOSSES 360
THE EXERGY LOSS OF THE THROTTLING-PROCESS 360
THE EXERGY LOSS OF THE HEAT EXCHANGER 361
THE EXERGY LOSS OF THE COOLER 362
AN EXERGY FLOW DIAGRAM 363
REFERENCES 365
DISCUSSION 365
Chapter 49. Recovering of Cold by Evaporating Liquid Methane Employed in the Air Separation to Obtain Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen 366
DISCUSSION 369
Chapter 50. Selection of Comparative Theoretical Cycle of Vapour Compression Refrigerating Plants 370
REFERENCES 373
DISCUSSION 373
Session 11: Heat Transfer 374
Chapter 51. Heat Transfer of Boiling Refrigerant 12 in Horizontal Tubes with Internal Flow Channel Guides 374
1. INTRODUCTION 374
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 375
3. RESULTS AND CONSIDERATIONS 376
CONCLUSIONS 381
NOMENCLATURE 381
REFERENCES 382
DISCUSSION 382
Chapter 52. Boiling Heat Transfer to a Cryogenic Fluid in Both Low and High Gravity Fields 384
INTRODUCTION 384
HEAT TRANSFER AT REDUCED AND NEAR ZERO GRAVITY 385
HEAT TRANSFER AT HIGH-GRAVITY 388
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 389
NOMENCLATURE 389
REFERENCES 390
DISCUSSION 391
Chapter 53. 
394 
Chapter 54. The Influence of Partial Pressure Difference and Supersaturation on the Frost Formation during the Cooling of Gas-Vapor-Mixtures in Counterflow Heat Exchangers 400
CONDENSATION IN THE CENTRE OF THE STREAM 401
FROST GROWTH ON THE WALLS 402
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 403
REFERENCES 404
DISCUSSION 405
Chapter 55. Influence of Oil on Heat Transfer of Boiling Freon 12 (Refrigerant 12) and Freon 22 (Refrigerant 22) 406
APPARATUS 407
MEASUREMENTS 407
INFLUENCE OF FOAMING ON HEAT TRANSFER 412
EXPERIMENTS WITH ANOTHER OIL AND WITH FREON 22 415
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 415
REFERENCES 416
DISCUSSION 416
Chapter 56. Separation of Oil from Refrigerant Vapor 418
1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK 418
2. RÉSUMÉ OF PREVIOUS WORK 418
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST PLANT 418
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTED OIL SEPARATORS 420
5. TEST PROCEDURE 420
6. RESULTS 421
7. CONCLUSIONS 422
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 422
REFERENCES 422
DISCUSSION 422
Chapter 57. The Diffusional Penetration of Humidity in the Insulation of Pipes 426
REFERENCES 430
DISCUSSION 430
Chapter 58. On the Correlation of the Thermal Convection Coefficients 432
FREE CONVECTION 432
FORCED CONVECTION 435
BIBLIOGRAPHY 436
DISCUSSION 436
Chapter 59. Mesure en régime variable du coefficient d'échange thermique en surface 438
1 — SYMBOLES 438
2 — METHODE DIRECTE DE MESURE EN REGIME VARIABLE FONDEE SUR LA MESURE DU GRADIENT DE TEMPERATURE EN SURFACE 439
3 — METHODE INDIRECTE DE MESURE EN REGIME VARIABLE, FONDEE SUR LE REFROIDISSEMENT D'UN SOLIDE GEOMETRIQUE 440
4 — CONCLUSION 442
5 — BIBLIOGARPHIE 443
DISCUSSION 444
Chapter 60. 
446 
METHODES D'ESSAI 446
RESULTATS 449
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 450
DISCUSSION 450
Chapter 61. 
452 
INTRODUCTION 452
INDUCTION OF BASIC FORMULA 453
CONCLUSION 459
Part IV: Commission 3 Design, construction and operation of machinery for refrigerating and air conditioning plants 460
Session 12: 
462 
Chapter 62. Direct Measuring of the Middle Indicated Pressure pmi of Compressors by Electronic Methods 462
REFERENCES 466
DISCUSSION 466
Chapter 63. Some Aspects of Pressure Pulse Attenuation for High Speed Reciprocating Compressors 468
REFERENCES 472
Chapter 64. Modern Measuring Technique for High-Speed Refrigerant Compressors 474
1. INTRODUCTION 474
2. MEASURING THE PRESSURE IN COMPRESSOR CYLINDERS 475
3. CALIBRATING THE PRESSURE PICKUPS DURING MEASUREMENT 475
4. MEASUREMENT OF VALVE PLATES LIFT 478
5. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE 480
REFERENCES 481
Chapter 65. Study of Factors Influencing the Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Compressors 482
1. INTRODUCTION 483
2. DESCRIPTION OF TESTED COMPRESSORS 484
3. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY ë AND LOSS (1 — X) 485
4. EFFICIENCY Av AND LOSS (1 — Av) 486
5. EFFICIENCY At AND LOSS (1 — At) 487
6. EFFICIENCY Au AND LOSS (1 — Au) 489
7. CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS 489
8. CONCLUSION 491
REFERENCES 491
LITERATURE 491
Chapter 66. Problèmes de construction posés par une machine à un seul arbrecomportant à un bout une turbine à vapeur et à l'autre bout un compresseur centrifuge frigorifique à deux étages 492
ARCHITECTURE GENERALE DE LA MACHINE 492
COMPRESSEUR 493
CARTER CENTRAL, REDUCTEUR DE VITESSE 493
SOCLE 494
REGULATION 495
SECURITE 496
DISCUSSION 496
Chapter 67. 
498 
REFERENCES 502
DISCUSSION 502
Chapter 68. 
504 
1. BASES THERMODYNAMIQUES GÉNÉRALES 504
2. DONNÉES DE FONCTIONNEMENT D'UNE TURBOMACHINE 507
3. SIMILITUDE D'ÉCOULEMENT LORS DE L'UTILISATION DE GAZ DIFFÉRENTS 510
4. SIMILITUDE DE L'ÉCOULEMENT POUR DIFFÉRENTS FRIGORIGÈNES 511
5. RÉSULTATS MESURÉS SUR DES MACHINES GÉOMÉTRIQUEMENT SEMBLABLES 516
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 516
Chapter 69. Etude expérimentale sur les turbo-compresseurs frigorifiques monoroue 518
NOTATIONS UTILISEES 523
DISCUSSION 523
Chapter 70. Design of Mixed Flow Impellers Operating at High Mach Numbers for Industrial Centrifugal Refrigeration Equipment 524
Chapter 71. Operative Properties of Mixed Flow Impellers of High Mach Numbers Destined for Industrial Turbo-Compressor Refrigeration Equipment 532
Session 13: 
534 
Chapter 72. Conditions of Cavitation in Liquid Pumps for Refrigerant Recirculation 534
INTRODUCTION 534
THEORY 535
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 540
RESULTS 542
CONSIDERATIONS IN SYSTEM DESIGN 545
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 546
REFERENCES 546
DISCUSSION 546
Chapter 73. Liquid Content in Evaporator Pipes 550
DISCUSSION 553
Chapter 74. The Problem of Refrigerant Return Line Calculations in Pump Recirculation Systems 556
EXAMPLE OF COMPUTATION 560
REFERENCES 560
DISCUSSION 561
Chapter 75. 
562 
11 RECHERCHE DU RENDEMENT MAXIMAL 562
12 — MODE D'ALIMENTATION 562
13 — STABILITÉ DE FONCTIONNEMENT ET PRÉCAUTIONS CONTRE LES TRANSFERTS DE CHARGE D'AMMONIAC 563
21 — SYSTÈME A REGORGEMENT NATUREL 563
22 - SYSTÈME A CIRCULATION PAR POMPE 564
23 — SYSTÈME MIXTE D'ALIMENTATION 566
III — CONCLUSION 567
REFERENCES 568
DISKUSSION 568
Chapter 76. 
570 
PACKAGED PANEL SUBCOOLERS 572
HOLD-OVER APPARATUS 573
CONCLUSION 574
Chapter 77. 
576 
INTRODUCTION 576
AIR COOLERS TESTED 576
TEST APPARATUS 576
TEST RESULTS 578
OPTIMAL DESIGN OF REFRIGERANT DISTRIBUTION 580
CONCLUSION 581
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 581
DISCUSSION 584
Chapter 78. Determination of Cooling Air Optimum Velocity, Arrangement and Area of Air-Cooled Condenser Surface 586
Chapter 79. Construction des condenseurs évaporatifs et des condenseurs à l'air pour les installations frigorifiques lourdes 592
I. MESURE DU VOLUME RELATIF D'AIR 592
II. MESURE DU COEFFICIENT DE TRANSMISSION DE CHALEUR 593
III. CONSTRUCTION DES CONDENSEURS A L'EAU 595
IV. CONSTRUCTION DES CONDENSEURS A L'AIR 595
V. CONDENSEURS CKD CHOCEN 596
Chapter 80. 
598 
SUMMARY 598
1 : INTRODUCTION 598
2 : ETUDES DES SOLUTIONS CLASSIQUES AVEC REFRIGERANT ATMOSPHERIQUE ET CONDENSEURS MULTITUBULAIRES 599
3 : ETUDE DE LA SOLUTION AVEC CONDENSEUR A EVAPORATION 601
4 : DEVELOPPEMENT ET PROGRES RECENTS DES DEUX SYSTEM ESCOMPARES 603
CONCLUSION 604
Chapter 81. Reciprocating and Turbo-Expanders for Low Temperature Refrigeration 606
INTRODUCTION 606
RECIPROCATING EXPANDERS 608
TURBO EXPANDERS 612
CONCLUSION 615
Chapter 82. Production du froid artificiel par la détente du gaz naturel 618
INTRODUCTION 618
LE NOUVEAU PROCÉDÉ 619
APPLICATION PRATIQUE 621
PROBLÈMES CONSTRUCTIFS 623
OBTENTION DE BASSES TEMPÉRATURES 624
Chapter 83. Design Problems of Supersonic Ejectors Operating as Booster Compressors in Refrigerating Systems 626
NOMENCLATURE 626
1. INTRODUCTION 627
2. THERMODYNAMIC AND GASDYNAMIC PROCESSES 627
3. EJECTION COEFFICIENT 629
4. ACCELERATION OF DRIVEN JET 630
5. DELIVERY CAPACITY 631
6. GEOMETRICAL SIZES 632
7. PRACTICAL HINTS 632
REFERENCES 634
DISCUSSION 635
Chapter 84. New Definitions Needed in Refrigeration 636
REFERENCES 637
Session 14: 
638 
Chapter 85. 
638 
EFFECT OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS ON PERFORMANCE 643
REFERENCES 645
Chapter 86. Thermoelectric Refrigeration - Possibilities and Problems 646
DESIGN AND OPERATION REQUIREMENT FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY 646
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 647
DESIGN PROBLEMS OF MODULES AND PACKAGE UNITS 648
APPLICATION PROBLEMS 650
COST OF SEMICONDUCTING MATERIAL 650
REFERENCES 651
Chapter 87. Thermoelectric Refrigeration and Prospects for its Wide Scale Technical Application 652
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers 111-17, 111-22, 111-28) 658
Chapter 88. Diagrams of Dimensionless Equations Determining Two Basic Working Regimes of Peltier Heat Pump 660
1. INTRODUCTION 660
2. ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS 661
3. CALCULATION OF PARAMETERS OF COOLING ELEMENT 661
4. CONCLUSION 665
APPENDIX 665
Chapter 89. Transient Temperatures in a Thermoelectric Refrigerator Following a Step Change in Current 668
PART I. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION 668
PART II. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 671
REFERENCES 678
Chapter 90. Come-Back of the Absorption Refrigerator? 680
COMPARISON OF THE COP OF THE CARNOT-CYCLES FOR COMPRESSORS AND ABSORBERS 681
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVE COP FOR COMPRESSORS AND ABSORBERS 683
COMPARISON OF THE PERFORMANCES OF THE COMPRESSORS AND ABSORBERS 685
FURTHER CORRECTION FACTORS IN FAVOUR OF THE ABSORBER 686
THE FINAL COMPARISON OF THE TWO UNITS 687
THE COMPARISON OF TWO REFRIGERATORS 688
COMPARISON OF THE PRODUCTION-COSTS OF SUCH REFRIGERATORS 688
CONCLUSIONS 689
Chapter 91. 
690 
REFERENCES 694
Chapter 92. L'emploi de la machine frigorifique à absorption comme « pompe à chaleur 696
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 702
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (Papers III-6 + III-41) 702
The Feeding of an Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration System Rectifier with Liquid from the Evaporator 704
Chapter 93. A Method for Determining Performance Characteristics of Absorption Refrigeration Systems 710
THERMAL COMPRESSOR AND EVAPORATOR 711
CONDENSER 714
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 715
Chapter 94. New Pumping Method in Absorption Refrigeration 718
Session 15: Refrigerants, Automation 722
Chapter 95. 
722 
INTRODUCTION 722
EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL DEGRADATION REACTIONS 723
CONCLUSIONS 727
REFERENCES 728
Chapter 96. Utilization of Refrigerant Mixtures in Refrigerating Compression Machines 730
Chapter 97. The Lubrication of Refrigerant 22 Machines 734
INTRODUCTION 734
MISCIBILITY OF MINERAL OILS WITH R 22 734
MISCIBILITY OF AROMATIC OILS WITH R 22 736
PERFORMANCE OF AROMATIC OILS IN REFRIGERATOR COMPRESSORS 736
SERVICE EXPERIENCE WITH OIL I 738
REFERENCES 738
DISCUSSION 738
Chapter 98. Examinations on the Behaviour of Plastics in Hermetic Units 740
INTRODUCTION 740
MATERIALS TESTED AND PROCESSING 740
WATER CONTENT AND DRYING 742
TEMPERATURE LIMIT 742
SOLVENT RESISTANCE 742
LIFE-TEST RESULTS 743
REFERENCES 745
Chapter 99. Effect of Heat Exchange between Capillary Tube and Suction Line on the Performance of Small Hermetic Compressor Systems 748
BACKGROUND FOR THE INVESTIGATION 748
DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTING ARRANGEMENT 748
THE INFLUENCE OF THE HEAT EXCHANGE ON THE REFRIGERATING CAPACITY 749
THE INFLUENCE OF THE HEAT EXCHANGE ON THE MOTOR TEMPERATURE 751
CONCLUSION 751
DISCUSSION 752
Chapter 100. 
754 
Chapter 101. Some Experiments on the Discharge Coefficients and Characteristics of Ammonia Thermostatic Expansion Valves 760
Chapter 102. 
764 
INTRODUCTION 764
COOLERS WITH THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES 766
FLOODED EVAPORATORS WITH SELF CIRCULATION OF THE LIQUID 766
EVAPORATORS WITH FORCED CIRCULATION OF LIQUID REFRIGERANT 768
CONCLUSION 769
REFERENCES 770
Chapter 103. 
772 
1. INTRODUCTION 772
2. THERMO-ELECTRICAL CONTROLLING 772
3. BRIEF EXPLANATION OF OUR EXPERIMENTAL PLANT 773
4. RECORDS OF TEMPERATURE MEASURED AT THE EXPERIMENTS 774
5. CONCLUSION 777
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION (PAPERS 111-39 + III-21) 777
Chapter 104. Introduction commune pour les deux rapports suivantes (III-36 et -37) 780
Chapter 105. Régulation de la production du froid dans les installations frigorifiques 782
I - PRINCIPE DE LA REGULATION DE PRODUCTION DU FROID D'UNE INSTALLATION FRIGORIFIQUE (entrepôt) 782
II - SCHEMA FONCTIONNEL DE LA BOUCLE DE REGULATION 783
III - ETUDE DE LA STABILITE ET DE LA PRECISION DE LA REGULATION 787
IV - CONCLUSION 790
Chapter 106. Les automatismes a séquences dans la production et l'utilisation du froid 792
TOUS CES CONTACTS SONT INDEPENDANTS LES UNS DES AUTRES 797