Front Cover 1
Bioenergy 
4 
Copyright 5
Dedication 6
Contents 8
List of Contributors 12
CHAPTER AUTHORS 12
BIOENERGY – BIOMASS TO BIOFUELS PROGRAM STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS 16
CONTRIBUTING ORGANIZATIONS 17
EDITOR AND AUTHOR 17
Foreword 18
Preface 20
UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT'S BIOMASS TO BIOFUELS COURSE BRINGS REAL WORLD TO ACADEMIA AND VISA VERSA 22
Acknowledgments 26
How to Use this Book: Helpful Suggestions 28
OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK 28
HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS FOR BOTH THE STUDENTS AND THE INSTRUCTORS ENGAGED IN BIOENERGY COURSES 29
ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS FOR AN EXPERT (TEACHER, PROFESSOR, GUEST SPEAKER) PLANNING TO USE MATERIAL PROVIDED IN THIS BOOK AS ... 30
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SEVEN PARTS 30
PART 1 BIOENERGY—BIOMASS TO BIOFUELS: AN OVERVIEW 32
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 36
PURPOSE 36
INTRODUCTION 36
BIOENERGY DEFINED 37
BIOENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND DRIVERS 38
FEEDSTOCKS 40
BIOMASS MATERIALS AND SOURCES 41
BIOMASS SUPPLY AND AVAILABILITY 49
OVERVIEW OF CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 51
CO-PRODUCTS AND BYPRODUCTS 53
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 54
SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES 57
CONCLUSION 61
Acknowledgments 61
REFERENCES 61
CHAPTER 2 - INTRODUCTION TO BIODIESEL AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS 68
BIODIESEL STANDARDS 71
BQ-9000 FUEL QUALITY PROGRAM 71
Acknowledgments 71
CHAPTER 3 - BIOENERGY: BIOMASS TO BIOFUELS GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND CONVERTION FACTORS 72
PART 2 WOOD AND GRASS BIOMASS AS BIOFUELS 84
CHAPTER 4 - WOOD BIOENERGY 86
INTRODUCTION TO WOOD BIOENERGY 86
WOOD ENERGY SOURCES: A VAST AND RENEWABLE RESOURCE 86
WOOD BIOENERGY USES IN THE UNITED STATES AND WORLDWIDE 89
VALUES AND BENEFITS OF WOOD BIOENERGY 89
WOOD ENERGY SOURCES 90
MANAGING WOOD BIOMASS FOR BIOENERGY 92
HARVESTING, TRANSPORTING, AND STORING WOODY BIOMASS FOR BIOENERGY 93
USING WOODY BIOMASS 95
DIRECT COMBUSTION OPTIONS 95
LIQUID AND GASEOUS BIOFUEL CONVERSION OPTIONS 97
BIOCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES 97
THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESSES 97
ECONOMICS OF WOODY BIOENERGY 98
ECONOMICS OF WOODY BIOENERGY PRODUCTION 99
SUSTAINABILITY OF WOODY BIOENERGY 100
SUMMARY 101
REFERENCES 101
CHAPTER 5 - PERENNIAL GRASS BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION 104
INTRODUCTION 104
DEVELOPING AND EVALUATING A PERENNIAL GRASS BIOMASS SYSTEM 104
REFERENCES 118
CHAPTER 6 - WOOD AND GRASS ENERGY SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS AND CASE STUDIES 120
PART 3 BIOMASS TO LIQUID BIOFUELS 138
CHAPTER 7 - BIOENERGY CROPS 142
INTRODUCTION 142
ECONOMICS 142
A CROP-BY-CROP ANALYSIS 146
CROP HANDLING AND LOGISTICS 161
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT FOR BIOMASS PRODUCTION 162
CONCLUSION 164
Acknowledgments 164
FURTHER READING 164
7 . APPENDIX A: ACRONYMS USED IN THIS CHAPTER 165
CHAPTER 8 - ON-FARM OIL-BASED BIODIESEL PRODUCTION 166
INTRODUCTION 166
SPECIES AND VARIETY SELECTION 168
PLANTING CONSIDERATIONS 170
PEST MANAGEMENT 175
HARVESTING, CLEANING, DRYING, AND STORAGE OF SEED 179
OIL EXTRACTION AND BYPRODUCTS 183
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES WITH FARM-BASED FUEL PRODUCTION 187
EXAMPLES OF ON-FARM FUEL SYSTEMS 188
REFERENCES 189
CHAPTER 9 - LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT: THE ENERGY RETURN ON INVESTED OF BIODIESEL 192
INTRODUCTION 192
EROI APPROACHES AND CONTROVERSIES 194
PURPOSE 196
DATA AND METHODS 197
EROI OF VERMONT BIODIESEL 200
CONSIDERATIONS 202
CONCLUSIONS 204
Acknowledgments 204
REFERENCES 204
9 . APPENDICES 205
CHAPTER 10 - ENERGY MANAGEMENT DURING FIELD PRODUCTION PRACTICES 210
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 210
TRACTOR USE 211
BALLASTING, SLIP, AND TIRE INFLATION 211
MAINTENANCE 213
TRANSMISSION 213
TRACTOR SELECTION 214
OTHER ISSUES 214
HARVEST OPERATIONS 215
OTHER INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS 216
FERTILIZER AND OTHER CULTURAL AND TECHNOLOGY ISSUES AFFECTING ENERGY USE 216
REFERENCE 217
FURTHER READING 217
Field operations—general 217
Tractor—general 217
Tractor ballasting/slip/tire inflation 217
Tractor transmission 217
Tractor selection 217
Other tractor issues 217
Fertilizer issues 217
No-till seeding 218
Corn production 218
CHAPTER 11 - STRAIGHT VEGETABLE OIL AS A DIESEL FUEL? 220
PERFORMANCE OF SVO 220
BIODIESEL: FUEL MADE FROM SVO 222
WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? 222
CHAPTER 12 - CELLULOSIC ETHANOL—BIOFUEL BEYOND CORN 224
INTRODUCTION 224
CELLULOSE AS ETHANOL FEEDSTOCK 224
CHALLENGES IN CELLULOSIC ETHANOL 225
CONCLUSION 227
Acknowledgment 227
REFERENCES 228
CHAPTER 13 - BIOHEAT 230
BIODIESEL 230
BIOHEAT 231
BIOHEAT AND ITS PROPERTIES 232
PROPERTIES OF HEATING OIL AND BIOHEAT 234
FUEL-RELATED SERVICE CALLS 238
THREE STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL BIOHEAT MANAGEMENT 241
QUICK TESTS FOR FUEL QUALITY 242
OIL FILTRATION 243
FUEL-ADDITIVE TREATMENT 244
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE 246
SOURCES 248
FURTHER READING 248
CHAPTER 14 - ALGAE BIOMASS CULTIVATION FOR ADVANCED BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 250
INTRODUCTION 250
ALGAE AS A SUSTAINABLE FEEDSTOCK FOR MULTIPLE USES 250
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF ALGAE BIOMASS AND JOURNEY TOWARD ALGAL BIOFUEL 251
POSSIBILITIES OF BIOFUEL PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE BIOMASS 252
ALGAE STRAIN SELECTION: ALGAE TYPES, STRAINS, AND USE IN BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 254
MICROALGAE 254
ALGAE CULTIVATION: GROWTH SYSTEMS 257
ALGAE HARVESTING 261
OIL EXTRACTION FROM HARVESTED ALGAE BIOMASS 262
CHALLENGES IN UPSCALING OF ALGAL BIOFUEL OPERATIONS FROM BENCH TO COMMERCIAL SCALES 263
INTEGRATED ALGAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 264
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS, ECONOMICS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 266
CONCLUSION 267
REFERENCES 268
CHAPTER 15 - BIOMASS TO LIQUID BIOFUELS SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS AND CASE STUDIES 270
SUBCHAPTER 15A - COST ANALYSIS OF OILSEED PRODUCTION FOR BIODIESEL AND THE VOLATILITY IN CORN AND CRUDE 273
REFERENCES 277
SUBCHAPTER 15B - THERMAL HEATING FUEL SWITCH 279
SUBCHAPTER 15C - MOBILE ETHANOL DISTILLERY UNIT: A FEASIBILITY STUDY 285
SUMMARY 285
BACKGROUND 285
SURVEY RESULTS 287
CONCLUSIONS 288
Acknowledgments 288
REFERENCES 288
PART 4 GASEOUS FUELS AND BIOELECTRICITY 290
CHAPTER 16 - THERMAL GASIFICATION OF BIOMASS – A PRIMER 292
INTRODUCTION 292
CLASSIFICATION OF GAS MIXTURES 293
CHEMICAL CONCEPTS AND BACKGROUND 294
HEATING VALUES OF GASES AND GAS MIXTURES 296
MEASURES OF GAS PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE 298
PYROLYSIS 298
THERMOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS 304
GASIFIER TYPES 308
POST-GASIFICATION PROCESSING 315
INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLES (IGCC) 316
FURTHER READING 317
CHAPTER 17 - BASICS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION THROUGH ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF LIVESTOCK MANURE 318
INTRODUCTION 318
BENEFITS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 320
WHAT MAKES AN OPERATION APPROPRIATE FOR ANAEROBIC DIGESTION? 324
CONCLUSION 325
Acknowledgments 326
REFERENCES 326
CHAPTER 18 - BIOENERGY AND ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 328
INTRODUCTION 328
THE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS 328
FEEDSTOCKS 331
THE PROCESS OF STARTING A DIGESTER 334
LOADING RATE 335
OPERATION AND CONTROL OF A DIGESTER 337
ROLE OF MIXING IN BIOGAS PRODUCTION 338
TYPES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS 341
CONCLUSION 347
Acknowledgments 347
REFERENCES 348
CHAPTER 19 - 
350 
PART 5 CONVERSION PATHWAYS FOR COST-EFFECTIVE BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 352
CHAPTER 20 - BIODIESEL PRODUCTION 356
INTRODUCTION 356
PRODUCTION PROCESSES 356
SUMMARY 365
POST REACTION PROCESSING 366
TREATMENT AND RECOVERY OF SIDE STREAMS 370
SUMMARY 372
Acknowledgments 376
REFERENCES 376
CHAPTER 21 - SYNTHESIS AND PARTIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF BIODIESEL VIA BASE CATALYZED TRANSESTERIFICATION 378
CHAPTER 22 - WHOLE ALGAL BIOMASS IN SITU TRANSESTERIFICATION TO FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS AS BIOFUEL FEEDSTOCKS 384
INTRODUCTION 384
MICROALGAE-FOCUSED LIPID TECHNOLOGIES FOR BIOFUEL APPLICATIONS 384
RENEWABLE AND BIODIESEL FUEL PROPERTIES 385
IN SITU TRANSESTERIFICATION OF OLEAGINOUS ALGAL BIOMASS 387
CHOICE OF CATALYST FOR IN SITU WHOLE BIOMASS TRANSESTERIFICATION 388
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF LIPID CONTENT IN ALGAL BIOMASS USING IN SITU TRANSESTERIFICATION 389
CONCLUSIONS 393
REFERENCES 393
CHAPTER 23 - HOW FUEL ETHANOL IS MADE FROM CORN 396
INTRODUCTION 396
FUEL ETHANOL 396
YEAST'S ROLE IN ETHANOL PRODUCTION 396
CORN AS ETHANOL FEEDSTOCK 396
INDUSTRIAL ETHANOL PRODUCTION 398
WET MILLING 398
DRY GRIND 398
DRY-GRIND ETHANOL PROCESSING STEPS 398
MILLING 398
LIQUEFACTION 399
SACCHARIFICATION 399
FERMENTATION 399
DISTILLATION AND RECOVERY 399
ENERGY USE IN ETHANOL PRODUCTION 400
CONCLUSIONS 400
Acknowledgment 401
REFERENCES 401
CHAPTER 24 - SMALL-SCALE APPROACHES FOR EVALUATING BIOMASS BIOCONVERSION FOR FUELS AND CHEMICALS 402
INTRODUCTION 402
TYPES OF BIOMASS 402
TREATMENT OF BIOMASS 404
MECHANICAL TREATMENTS 404
NO PRETREATMENT 404
CHEMICAL/THERMAL PRETREATMENT 405
ORGANIC PRETREATMENT 406
BIOLOGICAL PRETREATMENT 407
EXAMPLES OF SMALL-SCALE PRETREATMENT 407
TYPICAL PROTOCOL FOR BIOMASS PRETREATMENT 407
BIOMASS ANALYSIS 408
SMALL-SCALE BIOMASS FERMENTATION APPROACHES 411
ANALYSIS OF FERMENTATION RESULTS 416
IDENTIFICATION OF FERMENTATION INHIBITION 416
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 419
Acknowledgments 419
REFERENCES 420
CHAPTER 25 - REDUCING ENZYME COSTS, NOVEL COMBINATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF ENZYMES COULD LEAD TO IMPROVED COST-EFFECTIVE BIOF ... 424
REDUCING ENZYME COSTS INCREASES THE MARKET POTENTIAL OF BIOFUELS 424
NOVEL COMBINATION OF ENZYME SYSTEMS COULD LOWER BIOFUEL COSTS 426
ADVANTAGES OF ENZYME COULD LEAD TO IMPROVED BIOFUELS PRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS IN SCIENCE 428
Acknowledgments 429
CHAPTER 26 - PYROLYSIS OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS: OIL, CHAR, AND GAS 430
INTRODUCTION 430
TYPES OF THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION 432
LIGNOCELLULOSIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMISTRY FOR PYROLYSIS 435
BIOMASS PYROLYSIS STRATEGIES 446
APPLICATIONS AND APPROACHES FOR PRODUCT USE 453
CONCLUSION 457
REFERENCES 457
CHAPTER 27 - SUSTAINABLE AVIATION BIOFUELS: A DEVELOPMENT AND DEPLOYMENT SUCCESS MODEL 460
AVIATION ALTERNATIVE FUEL 2006 SNAPSHOT: “WHAT IF YOUR FAMILY WERE AN AIRLINE?” 460
AVIATION ALTERNATIVE FUEL 2013 SNAPSHOT: ACKNOWLEDGED LEADER IN SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT FUELS 461
KEY METHODOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE PROGRESS: CREATION OF A “NEW FUEL DYNAMIC” 463
STREAMLINING THE FUEL QUALIFICATION PROCESS 464
IMPLEMENTING COMPREHENSIVE RISK MANAGEMENT IN ALTERNATIVE FUELS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 468
STRUCTURING AND FACILITATING COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENT BENEFITS ASSESSMENTS 471
DEPLOYING A “A NEW FUEL DYNAMIC” THROUGH PUBLIC/PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP, AND MULTIPLE-SUCCESS MODELS 476
CLOSING SUMMARY 483
CHAPTER 28 - CUTTING-EDGE BIOFUEL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES TO INTEGRATE INTO PETROLEUM-BASED INFRASTRUCTURE AND INTEGRATED B ... 484
BIODIESEL AS RENEWABLE DIESEL 484
BIODIESEL VERSUS PETROLEUM DIESEL 485
PROCESSING PATHWAYS FOR CONVERSION OF BIOFUEL INTO DIESEL FUEL 485
INTEGRATION WITH EXISTING REFINERIES OR TO FORM NEW INTEGRATED BIOREFINERIES 493
CONCLUSION 501
REFERENCES 501
CHAPTER 29 - BIOFUEL CONVERSION PATHWAYS SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS AND CASE STUDIES 504
PART 6 BIOFUELS ECONOMICS, SUSTAINABILITY, ENVIRONMENTAL AND POLICY 524
CHAPTER 30 - BIOFUEL ECONOMICS AND POLICY: THE RENEWABLE FUEL STANDARD, THE BLEND WALL, AND FUTURE UNCERTAINTIES 528
THE RENEWABLE FUEL STANDARD 529
THE BLEND WALL 532
ALTERNATIVES TO THE CURRENT SITUATION 534
CELLULOSIC BIOFUELS 536
REFERENCES 537
CHAPTER 31 - ECONOMICS OF ETHANOL AND BIODIESEL 540
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY 540
ECONOMICS OF BIOFUELS 551
FARM-SCALE PRODUCTION 555
REFERENCES 556
CHAPTER 32 - FUEL QUALITY POLICY 558
Acknowledgments 559
CHAPTER 33 - RENEWABLE OILHEAT 560
THE RISE AND FALL OF THE OILHEAT MARKET 560
A CLEANER AND GREENER FUEL 562
OTHER RENEWABLE OPPORTUNITIES 563
REFERENCES 566
CHAPTER 34 - WHAT’S SO DIFFERENT ABOUT BIODIESEL FUEL? 568
INTRODUCTION 568
PROPERTIES OF BIODIESEL VERSUS PETROLEUM DIESEL 568
DOES THE TYPE OF VEGETABLE OIL USED MATTER? 569
MAKING BIODIESEL BETTER WITH ADDITIVES 570
WHAT ABOUT BLENDS? 571
SUMMARY 571
Acknowledgments 571
FURTHER READINGS 571
CHAPTER 35 - BIODIESEL EMISSIONS AND HEALTH EFFECTS TESTING 574
BIODIESEL EMMISSIONS 574
HEALTH EFFECTS TESTING 575
Acknowledgments 576
CHAPTER 36 - BIODIESEL SUSTAINABILITY FACT SHEET 578
SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLES 578
ENERGY BALANCE 578
WATER CONSERVATION 579
LAND CONSERVATION 579
FOOD SUPPLY SECURITY 579
DIVERSITY 580
CLEANER AIR AND HEALTH EFFECTS 580
Acknowledgments 580
CHAPTER 37 - ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES IN BIOENERGY 582
BIOENERGY ENTREPRENEURISM 582
THE ENERGY SITUATION NOW AND IN THE FUTURE 582
BIOENERGY ENTREPRENEURSHIP MOTIVATIONS 583
MARKET DRIVERS 584
OPPORTUNITIES IN BIOENERGY: BIOFUEL VALUE CHAIN 586
OPPORTUNITIES IN SMALL-SCALE BIOENERGY 588
OPPORTUNITIES IN LARGE-SCALE BIOENERGY 590
OPPORTUNITIES AT THE PERIPHERY 591
EXAMPLES OF ENTREPRENEURISM FROM THE ETHANOL BOOM 591
CHALLENGES 593
REFERENCES 593
CHAPTER 38 - INTEGRATED AGROECOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY NETWORKS FOR FOOD, BIOENERGY, AND BIOMATERIAL PRODUCTION 596
INTRODUCTION 596
THE ROLE OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY IN CFEA DESIGN AND EVALUATION 598
MEASURING CFEA PERFORMANCE IN A COMPETITIVE WORLD 598
PAR FOR CFEA PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION 599
ANALYSIS OF ECO-TECHNOLOGIES FOR VERMONT-BASED CFEA 600
CFEA CASE STUDY: THE BURLINGTON AREA AGRO-ECO PARK CONCEPT 606
CONCLUSION 610
Acknowledgments 611
REFERENCES 611
PART 7 QUIZZES 614
Quizzes and Self-Test Questions 616
INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 616
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 622
QUIZZES AND SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 623
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 628
BIOGAS, ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 629
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 635
Index 636